8. Pedestrian Crossings
8. PEDESTRIAN CROSSINGS
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1
ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF PEDESTRIAN CROSSINGS .................................................................... 2
FLORIDA STATE STATUTES RELATED TO PEDESTRIAN CROSSINGS................................................ 4
PERFORMANCE MEASURES ......................................................................................................... 4
PEDESTRIAN CROSSING TOOLBOX ............................................................................................... 5
Marked Crosswalks .................................................................................................................5
Raised Crossing Islands/Medians ...........................................................................................11
Raised Crosswalks .................................................................................................................13
Curb Extensions .....................................................................................................................13
All-Pedestrian Phases ............................................................................................................14
Signs ......................................................................................................................................16
Advanced Yield/Stop Lines ....................................................................................................17
Lighting .................................................................................................................................17
Rectangular Rapid Flashing Beacon (RRFB) ............................................................................18
Pedestrian Hybrid Beacon .....................................................................................................19
Pedestrian Toolbox for Railroad Crossings .............................................................................20
8. Pedestrian Crossings
(Credit:
Kimley
-
Horn and Associates, Inc.
)
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-1
Crossings are a necessary part of the pedestrian experience
(Credit: Luisa Fernanda Arbeláez)
INTRODUCTION
Walking requires two
important features in the
built environment: people
must walk along streets and
they must get across streets.
Crossing a street should be
easy, safe, convenient, and
comfortable. While
pedestrian behavior and
intersection or crossing
design affect the street
crossing experience, motorist
behavior (whether and how
motorists stop for
pedestrians) is the most
significant factor in
pedestrian safety.
Pedestrian networks and vehicle networks overlap at intersections, posing conflicts between
different modes of travel. A number of tools exist to improve pedestrian safety and to make
crossing streets easier. Effective traffic management can address concerns about traffic speed
and volume. A motorist driving more slowly has more time to see, react, and stop for a
pedestrian. The number of pedestrians also
influences motorists; in general, motorists are more
aware of pedestrians when more people walk.
Most tools to address crossing challenges are
engineering treatments, but tools from the
enforcement, education, and planning toolboxes
are also important.
Marked crosswalks guide pedestrians to walk at the safest location. To a lesser extent, marked
crosswalks also alert vehicle operators to the potential presence of pedestrians, although
crosswalks can be less visible from the perspective of moving traffic, which is one reason for
supplementing crosswalks with pedestrian warning (W11-2) signs. Providing marked
crosswalks is only one of the many possible engineering measures. When considering how to
provide safer crossings for pedestrians, the question should not be: "Should I provide a marked
crosswalk?" Instead, the question should be: "What are the most effective measures that can
be used to help pedestrians safely cross the street?" For example, crossings often need to be
supplemented with median refuges, flashing beacons, and signage. Deciding whether to mark
or not mark crosswalks is only one consideration in creating safe and convenient pedestrian
crossings.
"I just want to be able to cross
the street safely."
- City of Deerfield Beach
Mayor
Peggy
Noland
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-2
This chapter describes a number of measures to improve pedestrian crossings, including
marked and unmarked crosswalks, raised crossing islands and medians, beacons, and lighting.
ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF PEDESTRIAN CROSSINGS
The following principles should be
incorporated into every pedestrian
crossing improvement:
Pedestrians must be able to cross
roads safely. FDOT and local
governments have an obligation
to provide safe and convenient
crossing opportunities.
The safety of all street users,
particularly more vulnerable
groups, such as children, the
elderly, and those with
disabilities, and more vulnerable
modes, such as walking and
bicycling, must be considered when designing streets.
Pedestrian crossings must meet accessibility standards and guidelines (see Chapter 7
“Universal Pedestrian Access” for more information).
Real and perceived safety must be considered
when designing crosswalks — crossing the street
must be “comfortable.”
Crossing treatments that have the best
crash modification factors (CMFs) should be used
when designing crossings.
Safety should not be compromised to
accommodate traffic flow.
Good crossings begin with appropriate
speed. In general, urban arterials should be
designed to a maximum of 30 mph or 35 mph.
Every crossing is different and should be
selected and designed to fit its unique
environment.
The following issues should also be considered when planning and designing crossings.
Ideally, uncontrolled crossing distances should be no more than 28 feet, which allows
for two 11-foot lanes and one 6-foot bicycle lane. This would allow pedestrians to cross
Curb extensions and medians make crossing four
-
lane streets
safer and more manageable. Note the use of an in-street
pedestrian crossing sign to alert motorists.
(Credit: Dan Burden)
A crash modification factor (CMF) is
a multiplicative factor used to
compute the expected number of
crashes after implementing a given
countermeasure at a specific site
consistent with the FHWA Highway
Safety Manual. For example, if a
median refuge island at an existing
crosswalk is expected to reduce the
number of crashes by 23 percent,
the CMF will be 1 – (23/100) = 0.77.
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-3
MUTCD R10
-
15 sign
(Credit: Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc.)
an uncontrolled crossing in 8 seconds, assuming a conventional walking speed of 3.5
feet per second.
Uncontrolled crosswalks should still be considered if the crossing distance is greater
than 28 feet within a context sensitive approach, such as in locations where transit
passengers cross the street, in urban transects (T4, T5 or T6), where marked crosswalks
would effectively channel pedestrians to a single crossing location, and unsignalized
intersections with no signalized crossing within 600 feet (see Accessing Transit:
Designing Handbook for Florida Bus Passenger Facilities, Florida State University (2008),
accessed from FDOT Transit website).
Uncontrolled crosswalks on streets wider than 28 feet should be augmented with
additional crossing safety devices. Ideally, streets wider than 28 feet should be divided
(effectively creating two streets) by installing a median or crossing islands, especially
when traffic volumes are greater than 12,000 vehicles per day. According to Safety
Effects of Marked Versus Unmarked Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations (Zegeer et al,
2005), on multi-lane roads with traffic volumes above 12,000 vehicles per day, having a
marked crosswalk alone (without other substantial crossing safety improvements) was
associated with a higher pedestrian crash rate compared to an unmarked crosswalk.
Substantial crossing safety improvements were considered to include raised medians,
speed-reducing measures (traffic calming), traffic signals, and beacons.
The number of lanes crossed should be limited to a maximum of three lanes per
direction on all roads (plus a median or center turn lane).
There must be a safe, convenient crossing at every transit stop.
Double (or triple) left or right turns concurrent
(permissive) with pedestrian crossings at
signalized intersections must never be allowed.
Avoid concurrent movements of motor vehicles
and people at signalized intersections, with the
exception of right-turns from single lanes, which
should be supplemented with R10-15 signs and
tight corner radii to control speeds.
People should never have to wait more than 90
seconds to cross at signalized intersections.
Pedestrian signals should be provided at all
signalized crossings where pedestrians are
allowed.
Marked crosswalks should be provided on all
approaches of signalized intersections.
Locations where pedestrian bulb-outs can be
provided can enhance the viability of a crossing
location.
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-4
Lively streets with many pedestrians and comfortable crossing
environments indicate a walkable neighborhood, such as
Lauderdale-By-The-Sea
(Credit: Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc.)
FLORIDA STATE STATUTES RELATED TO PEDESTRIAN CROSSINGS
Florida traffic laws for pedestrians and drivers are found in Florida State Statute 316.003,
316.075, and 316.130. A brief summary is provided below.
Crosswalks may be marked or unmarked and carry the same legal definition whether
marked or unmarked.
Any intersection of two public streets is a legal crossing, and is therefore a strong
candidate to include marked crosswalks, signage, and pedestrian crossing safety
infrastructure.
Mid-block crossing outside a crosswalk is allowed if in either direction, the nearest
intersection is unsignalized.
A driver is obligated to yield the right-of-way to a pedestrian lawfully crossing in a
crosswalk. Safe yielding may require stopping.
A crosswalk is legally present on each leg of an intersection whether marked or
unmarked.
PERFORMANCE MEASURES
Performance measures are typically used to study uncontrolled crossing locations.
Performance measures establish how well a crossing is performing. In all cases, baseline data
should be collected to allow for before and after analysis. Performance measures for
pedestrian crossings include the following.
The number of pedestrians
crossing at a particular
crossing location increases.
The pedestrian crash rates
descrease (for an accurate
determination, entire
corridors should be analyzed
since crashes at any one
location may be infrequent).
Pedestrian fatalities and
serious injuries should
decrease.
The numbers of children,
seniors, and people with
disabilities crossing the street
should reflect their
percentage in the vicinity
population.
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-5
Marked crosswalk. If decorative treatment is applied it shall be
bordered by solid white line crosswalk markings.
(Credit: Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc.)
The speed of motorists either turning at an intersection or traveling at a mid-block
crossing descreases.
Motorists do not block intersections (including crosswalks).
At uncontrolled intersections, the percentage of motorists who stop for pedestrians
goes up (measure compliance with stop or yield requirement in local vehicle code).
PEDESTRIAN CROSSING TOOLBOX
Many engineering measures may be used at a pedestrian crossing, depending on site conditions
and potential users. Marked crosswalks are commonly used at intersections and sometimes at
mid-block locations. Marked crosswalks are often the first measure in the toolbox followed by a
series of other measures that are used to enhance and improve marked crosswalks. The
decision to mark a crosswalk should not be considered in isolation, but rather in conjunction
with other measures to increase awareness of pedestrians. Without additional measures,
marked crosswalks alone may not increase pedestrian safety, particularly on multi-lane streets.
MARKED CROSSWALKS
Crosswalks are present by law on
all approaches of all intersections,
whether marked or unmarked,
whether signalized or unsignalized,
unless the pedestrian crossing is
specifically prohibited by signs. At
mid-block locations, crosswalks
only exist where marked. Note
that mid-block crossings are legally
allowed if the nearest intersection
in each direction is unsignalized.
Crosswalks should be considered
at mid-block locations where there
is strong evidence that pedestrians
want to cross there, due to origins
and destinations across from each
other and an overly long walking
distance to the nearest controlled
crossing (see mid-block crossing
sub-section below). Marked crosswalks alert drivers to expect crossing pedestrians and direct
pedestrians to desirable crossing locations. Although many motorists are unaware of their
precise legal obligations at crosswalks, the Florida Uniform Traffic Control Law requires drivers
to yield to pedestrians in any crosswalk, whether marked or unmarked. Marking crosswalks at
every intersection is not necessary or desirable.
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-6
Pedestrian crossing at a controlled intersection
(Credit: Luisa Fernanda Arbeláez)
Crosswalk Markings
According to the MUTCD, the minimum crosswalk marking shall consist of solid white lines.
They shall not be less than 6 inches or greater than 24 inches in width. FDOT Standard Index
17346 states that crosswalk lines shall be a minimum of 12 inches in width. Local jurisdictions
should follow the 12 inch minimum standard for crosswalk markings.
Placement
The best locations to install marked crosswalks are as follows.
All signalized intersections
Crossings near transit locations
Shared use path crossings
High-pedestrian land use generators
School walking routes
Where there is a preferred crossing location due to sight distance
Where needed to enable comfortable crossings of multi-lane streets between controlled
crossings spaced at convenient distances
Unsignalized intersections in urban transects (T4, T5, or T6)
Unsignalized intersections with no signalized crossing within 600 feet
Controlled Intersections
Intersections can be
controlled by traffic signals
or STOP signs. Marked
crosswalks should be
provided on all intersection
legs controlled by traffic
signals, unless the pedestrian
crossing is specifically
prohibited by signs. Marked
crosswalks may be
considered at STOP-
controlled intersections.
Factors to be considered
include high pedestrian
volumes, high vehicle
volumes, school zone
location, high volume of
elderly or disabled users, or other safety related criteria.
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-7
Pedestrian crossing at an uncontrolled intersection
(Credit: Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc.)
Uncontrolled Intersections
Intersections without traffic signals or
STOP signs are considered uncontrolled
intersections. The decision to mark a
crosswalk at an uncontrolled intersection
should be guided by an engineering study.
Factors considered in the study should
include vehicular volumes and speeds,
roadway width and number of lanes,
stopping sight distance and triangles,
distance to the next controlled crossing,
night time visibility, grade, origin-
destination of trips, left turning conflicts,
and pedestrian volumes. The engineering
study should be based on the FHWA study,
Safety Effects of Marked Versus Unmarked
Crosswalks at Uncontrolled Locations
(Zegeer et al, 2005). The following list provides some of the key recommendations from the
study.
Uncontrolled crossings of four
-
lane streets can be difficult to cross without
special treatments like medians and curb extensions.
(Credit: Michele Weisbart)
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-8
Uncontrolled mid
-
block pedestrian crossing
(Credit: Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc.)
Controlled mid
-
block pedestrian crossing; note traffic
signal structure overhead
(Credit: Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc.)
It is permissible to mark crosswalks at uncontrolled locations on two-lane roadways.
On multi-lane roadways, uncontrolled marked crosswalks should be enhanced by
additional safety features under the following conditions (the other tools listed in this
section can be considered to enhance the crosswalk):
o ADT > 12,000 w/o median
o ADT > 15,000 w/ median
o Speeds greater than 40 mph
Raised medians can be used to reduce risk.
Signals or other treatments should be considered where there are many young and/or
elderly pedestrians.
Mid-block Crosswalks
A mid-block crosswalk can be controlled or
uncontrolled.
A controlled mid-block crosswalk includes a
traffic signal to control motor vehicles based
on pedestrian-actuation of the signal.
Although the pedestrian crossing traffic
signal is not the sole solution to facilitating
pedestrian access to street crossings, it is
often a necessary solution at multi-lane
facilities having high vehicular volume. The
mid-block pedestrian signal should be
guided by an engineering study and a
comparison to the signal warrants found in
the MUTCD.
Uncontrolled mid-block crosswalks can also
be provided under certain circumstances.
The criteria for marking an uncontrolled
mid-block crosswalk provided below are
adapted from the Center for Urban
Transportation Research (CUTR) report
Pedestrian Safety at Midblock Locations
(Chu, 2006).
Pedestrian Demand. Any block
under consideration for a possible
mid-block crosswalk should show a
well-defined pattern of pedestrian generators, pedestrian attractors, and pedestrian
flow between them. Considerations should also include presence of bus stops.
Sufficient pedestrian crossing demand generally is 25 pedestrians during the peak hour
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-9
of pedestrian crossing traffic or 75 pedestrians during the peak four hours of pedestrian
crossing traffic.
Shared-Use Path Crossing. Well-designed mid-block crosswalks should be strongly
considered at any mid-block location that is an integral part of a designated shared-use
path regardless of demand.
Existence of Alternatives. The minimum distance to the nearest controlled or
protected crossing is 300 feet. A well-designed crossing should be provided at least
every 660 feet in urbanized areas.
Traffic Volume. For local streets, a minimum threshold for average daily traffic typically
falls in the range of 1,500 to 3,000. Above the following average daily traffic and speed
thresholds as presented in the Uncontrolled Intersections sub-section, mid-block
crossings should be augmented with enhanced safety devices.
o ADT > 12,000 w/o median
o ADT > 15,000 w/ median
o Speeds greater than 40 mph
Stopping Sight Distance. Stopping sight distance should be calculated and compared to
minimum sight distance criteria found in the FDOT Plans Preparation Manual (PPM)
Chapter 2 or AASHTO guidance. The consideration of sight distance should account for
the presence of on-street parking when applicable.
Lighting. A minimum illumination level of 2.5 horizontal foot-candles shall be used for
both approaches. When regular street lighting is not present or is inadequate to reach
this minimum illumination level, separate crosswalk lighting shall be installed. Crossing
locations with high night-time demand should include separate crosswalk lighting,
which may include in-street lighting.
These basic safety criteria are consistent with MUTCD guidance and help achieve the objective
of increasing positive effects of marked crosswalks while reducing negative behavioral
adaptation.
Frequency of Marked Crosswalks at
Uncontrolled Locations
Along urban streets, a well-designed crossing
should be provided at least every 1/8 mile (660
feet). Marked crosswalks should be spaced so
people can cross at preferred locations. If people
are routinely crossing streets at non-preferred
locations, consideration should be given to
installing a new crossing. Pedestrians need
crossings with appropriate devices (islands, curb
extensions, advanced yield lines, etc.) on multi-
lane streets where there are strong desire lines.
Longitudinal crosswalk markings are more visible than
lateral crosswalk markings
(Credit: Michele Weisbart)
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-10
FDOT special emphasis crosswalk; note this design may have been
improved by a channelization island for refuge
(Credit: Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc.)
Special Emphasis Crosswalks
Because of the low approach angle at which pavement markings are viewed by drivers, the use
of longitudinal stripes in addition to or in place of transverse markings can significantly increase
the visibility of a crosswalk to oncoming traffic. While research has not shown a direct link
between increased crosswalk visibility and increased pedestrian safety, special emphasis
crosswalks have been shown to increase motorist yielding and channelization of pedestrians,
leading the Federal Highway Administration to conclude that high-visibility pedestrian
crosswalks have a positive effect on pedestrian and driver behavior.
Colored and stamped crosswalks
should only be used at controlled
locations, and should always be
bordered by white lines.
Local jurisdictions should be
consistent with FDOT criteria for
special emphasis crosswalks
Lines must always be
white
Longitudinal stripes must
be 24 inches wide
Longitudinal stripes
should be spaced to avoid the
wheel-paths of vehicles up to a
maximum spacing of 60 inches.
Crosswalks and Accessibility
The Pedestrian Access Route continues through the
crosswalk and must conform to the surface condition,
width, and slope requirements discussed in Chapter 7,
“Universal Pedestrian Access.”
Longitudinal crosswalk markings provide the best
visibility for pedestrians with limited vision.
Decorative crosswalk pavement materials should be
chosen with care to ensure that smooth surface
conditions and high contrast with surrounding
Decorative crosswalk treatments made of
distinctive materials can become uneven
over time.
(Credit: Ryan Snyder)
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-11
pavement are provided. Textured materials within the crosswalk are not recommended.
Without reflective materials, these treatments are not visible to drivers at night. Decorative
pavement materials often deteriorate over time and become a maintenance problem while
creating uneven pavement. The use of color or material to delineate the crosswalks as a
replacement of retro-reflective pavement marking should not be used, except in slow speed
districts where intersecting streets are designed for speeds of 20 mph or less.
RAISED CROSSING ISLANDS/MEDIANS
Raised islands and medians are the most important,
safest, and most adaptable engineering tool for
improving street crossings. Note on terminology: a
median is a continuous raised area separating
opposite flows of traffic. A crossing island is shorter
and located just where a pedestrian crossing is
needed. Raised medians and crossing islands are
commonly used between intersections when blocks
are long (500 feet or more in downtowns) and in the
following situations:
Speeds are higher than desired
Streets are wide
Traffic volumes are high
Sight distances are poor
Raised islands have nearly universal applications and should be placed where there is a need for
people to cross the street. They are also used to slow traffic.
Raised crossing islands and medians have been identified by FHWA as the most effective tool to
enhance crossing safety (Pedestrian Countermeasure Policy Best Practice Report, FHWA, and
Pedestrian Safety Engineering and ITS-Based Countermeasures, FHWA).
Reasons for Efficacy
The use of raised crossing islands and medians
changes a complex task, crossing a wide street
with traffic coming from two opposing directions
all at once, into two simpler and smaller tasks.
With their use, conflicts occur in only one
direction at a time, and exposure time can be
reduced from more than 20 seconds to just a few
seconds.
Staggered median crossing
(Credit: Marcel Schmaedick)
Medians and crossing islands allow pedestrians to
complete the crossing in two stages.
(Credit: Michele Weisbart)
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-12
Multiple tools can be employed to improve
uncontrolled crossings.
(Credit: Dan Burden)
On streets with traffic speeds higher than 30 mph, it may be unsafe to cross without a median
island. At 30 mph, motorists travel 44 feet each second, placing them 880 feet out when a
pedestrian starts crossing an 80-foot wide multi-lane road. In this situation, this pedestrian may
still be in the last travel lane when the car arrives there; that car was not within view at the
time he or she started crossing. With an island on multi-lane roadways, people would cross two
or three lanes at a time instead of four or six. Having to wait for a gap in only one direction of
travel at a time significantly reduces the wait time to cross. Medians and crossing islands have
been shown to reduce crashes by 40 percent (Designing for Pedestrian Safety course, FHWA).
As a general rule, crossing islands are preferable to signal-controlled crossings due to their
lower installation and maintenance cost, reduced waiting times, and their safety benefits.
Crossing islands are also used with road diets, taking four-lane undivided, high-speed roads
down to better performing three-lane roadways (two travel lanes and a center turn lane);
portions of the center turn lane can be dedicated to crossing islands. Crossing islands can also
be used with signals.
Angled pedestrian crossings through pedestrian refuges (as shown in the photo below) force
pedestrians to look for oncoming vehicles.
Angled median crossing
(Credit: Paul Zykofsky)
Where to Place Crossing Islands
Crossing islands are often used for trails, high
pedestrian flow zones, transit stations, schools, work
centers, and shopping districts.
Design Detail
Crossing islands, like most traffic calming features,
perform best with both tall trees and low ground
cover. This greatly increases their visibility, reduces
surprise, and lowers the need for a plethora of signs. When curves or hill crests complicate
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-13
Curb extensions
(Credit: Michele Weisbart)
C
rossing islands: Berkeley, CA
(Credit: Ryan Snyder)
crossing locations, median islands are often
extended over a crest or around a curve to where
motorists have a clear (six second or longer) sight
line of the downstream change in conditions.
Lighting of median islands is essential. The
suggested minimum width of a crossing island is 6
feet. When used on higher speed roads, and where
there is space available, inserting a 45-degree bend
to the right helps orient pedestrians to the risk
they encounter from motorists during the second
half of their crossing.
RAISED CROSSWALKS
Raised crosswalks slow traffic and put pedestrians in
a more visible position. They are trapezoidal in
shape on both sides and have a flat top where the
pedestrians cross. The level crosswalk area must be
paved with smooth materials; any texture or special
pavements used for aesthetics should be placed on
the beveled slopes, where they will be seen by
approaching motorists. They are most appropriate in
areas with significant pedestrian traffic and where
motor vehicle traffic should move slowly, such as
near schools, on college campuses, in Main Street
retail environments, and in other similar places.
They are especially effective near elementary
schools where they raise small children by a few inches and make them more visible.
CURB EXTENSIONS
Curb extensions extend the sidewalk or curb line
out into the parking lane, which reduces the
effective street width. Curb extensions
significantly improve pedestrian crossings by
reducing the pedestrian crossing distance,
visually and physically narrowing the roadway,
improving the ability of pedestrians and
motorists to see each other, and reducing the
time that pedestrians are in the street. Reducing
street widths improves signal timing since
pedestrians need less time to cross.
Raised crosswalk
(Credit: Toole Design Group)
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-14
Example of curb extensions
(Credit: Marcel Schmaedick)
Motorists typically travel more slowly at intersections or mid-block locations with curb
extensions, as the restricted street width sends a visual cue to slow down. Turning speeds are
lower at intersections with curb extensions (curb radii should be as tight as is practicable). Curb
extensions also prevent motorists from parking too close to the intersection.
Curb extensions also provide additional space for
two curb ramps and for level sidewalks where
existing space is limited, increase the pedestrian
waiting space, and provide additional space for
pedestrian push button poles, street furnishings,
plantings, bike parking and other amenities. A
benefit for drivers is that extensions allow for
better placement of signs (e.g., stop signs and
signals).
Curb extensions are generally only appropriate where there is an on-street parking lane. Where
street width permits, a gently tapered curb extension can reduce crossing distance at an
intersection along streets without on-street parking, without creating a hazard. Curb extensions
must not extend into travel lanes or bicycle lanes.
Curb extensions can impact other aspects of roadway design and operation as follows:
May impact street drainage and require catch basin relocation
May impact underground utilities
May require loss of curbside parking, though careful planning often mitigates this
potential loss, for example by relocating curbside fire hydrants, where no parking is
allowed, to a curb extension
May complicate delivery access and garbage removal
May impact street sweepers
May affect the turning movements of larger vehicles such as school buses and large fire
trucks
ALL-PEDESTRIAN PHASES
Exclusive pedestrian phases (i.e. pedestrian ‘scrambles’) may be used where turning vehicles
conflict with very high pedestrian volumes and pedestrian crossing distances are short.
Although pedestrians can cross in any direction during the pedestrian phase, pedestrians
typically have to wait for both vehicle phases before they get the walk signal again. This creates
delay for pedestrians travelling straight, but can be mitigated by allowing pedestrians
continuing along the same direction to get a WALK signal during the green signal phase and
while turns are prohibited for traffic. Diagonal crosswalk markings are consistent with 2009
MUTCD Chapter 3B.18.
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-15
Proposed all
-
pedestrian
phase and diagonal
crosswalk markings
(Credit: City of
Lauderdale-By-The-Sea)
Proposed all
-
pedestrian phase and diagonal crosswalk markings
(Credit: City of Lauderdale-By-The-Sea)
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-16
Pedestrian warning sign
(MUTCD W11-2)
with diagonal
downward pointing
arrow
Advance pedestrian warning
sign with distance plaque
(Credit: Kimley-Horn and
Associates, Inc.)
SIGNS
Signs can provide important information to improve road safety by
letting people know what to expect, so they can react and behave
appropriately. Sign use and placement should be done judiciously, as
overuse breeds noncompliance and disrespect. Too many signs create
visual clutter.
Regulatory signs, such as STOP, YIELD, or turn restrictions, require driver
actions and can be enforced. Warning signs provide information,
especially to motorists and pedestrians unfamiliar with an area.
Advance pedestrian warning signs or pedestrian warning signs with
distance supplemental plaques should be used where pedestrian
crossings may not be expected by motorists, especially if there are
many motorists who are unfamiliar with the area. The fluorescent
yellow/green (FYG) color is designated specifically for pedestrian,
bicycle, and school warning signs (Section 2A.10 of the 2009
MUTCD) and should be used for new and replacement installations.
This bright color attracts the attention of drivers.
Sign R1-5 should be used in
conjunction with advance yield
lines, as described below. Sign R1-
6 may be used on median islands,
where they will be more visible to
motorists than signs placed on the
side of the street, especially
where there is on-street parking.
Since Florida is a “yield” state, local jurisdictions should use R1-5, R1-5a,
and R1-6 signs. It should be noted that Florida State Statute 316
recognizes that the act of yielding may include stopping.
All signs should be periodically checked to make sure that they are in
good condition, free from graffiti, reflective at night, and continue to
serve a purpose.
All sign installations need to comply with the provisions of the MUTCD.
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-17
Advanced yield markings
(Credit: Michele Weisbart)
Proper placement of crosswalk illumination
(Credit: Michele Weisbart)
ADVANCED YIELD/STOP LINES
Stop lines are solid white lines 12 to 24 inches wide,
extending across all approach lanes to indicate where
vehicles must stop in compliance with a stop sign or signal.
Advance stop lines reduce vehicle encroachment into the
crosswalk and improve drivers’ view of pedestrians. At
signalized intersections a stop line is typically set back
between 4 and 6 feet.
At uncontrolled crossings of multi-lane roads, advance yield
lines can be an effective tool for preventing multiple threat
vehicle and pedestrian collisions. Section 3B.16 of the
MUTCD specifies placing advanced yield markings 20 to 50
feet in advance of crosswalks, depending upon location-
specific variables such as vehicle speeds, traffic control, street
width, on-street parking, potential for visual confusion,
nearby land uses with vulnerable populations, and demand for queuing space. Thirty feet is the
preferred setback for effectiveness at many locations. This setback allows a pedestrian to see if
a car in the second (or third) lane is stopping after a driver in the first lane has stopped.
LIGHTING
Lighting is important to include at all pedestrian crossing locations for the comfort and safety of
the road users. Lighting should be present at all marked crossing locations. Lighting provides
cues to drivers to expect pedestrians earlier.
FHWA HT-08-053, The Information Report on
Lighting Design for Mid-block Crosswalks, found
that a vertical illumination of 20 lux in front of the
crosswalk, measured at a height of 5 feet from
the road surface, provided adequate detection
distances in most circumstances. Although the
research was constrained to mid-block
placements of crosswalks, the report includes a
brief discussion of considerations in lighting
crosswalks co-located with intersections. The
same principle applies at intersections.
Illumination just in front of crosswalks creates
optimal visibility of pedestrians.
Other good guidance on crosswalk lighting levels comes from the Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America (IESNA) intersection guidance to illuminate pedestrians in the
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-18
Rectangul
ar rapid
flash
ing
beacon
(RRFB)
crossing safety device with median refuge
(Credit: Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc.)
crosswalk to vehicles (see the image below image). Crosswalk lighting should provide color
contrast from standard roadway lighting.
Table 8.1 Recommended Illumination by Street Type
FC stands for "foot candle" and is defined as the amount of illuminance on a 1 square foot surface of which
there is uniformly distributed flux of one lumen. ANSI-IESNA RP-8-00, Roadway Lighting, p. 15
RECTANGULAR RAPID FLASHING BEACON (RRFB)
The RRFB uses rectangular-shaped high-
intensity LED-based indications, flashes
rapidly in a wig-wag "flickering" flash
pattern, and is mounted immediately
between the crossing sign and the sign's
supplemental arrow plaque.
The FHWA Office of Transportation
Operations has reviewed available data and
considers the RRFB to be highly successful
for the applications tested (uncontrolled
crosswalks). The RRFB offers significant
potential safety and cost benefits because
it achieves very high rates of compliance at
a very low cost compared to other more
restrictive devices such as full mid-block
signalization. The components of the RRFB are not proprietary and can be assembled by any
jurisdiction with off-the-shelf hardware. The FHWA believes that the RRFB has a low risk of
safety or operational concerns. However, because proliferation of RRFBs in the roadway
environment to the point that they become ubiquitous could decrease their effectiveness, use
of RRFBs should be limited to locations with the most critical safety concerns, such as
pedestrian and school crosswalks at uncontrolled locations, as tested in the experimentation.
Functional Classification
Average Maintained Illumination at Pavement by Pedestrian
Area Classification [FC]
High Medium Low
Major / Major (boulevard)
3.4 fc 2.6 fc 1.8 fc
Major / Collector (boulevard/avenue)
2.9 fc 2.2 fc 1.5 fc
Major / Local (avenue)
2.6 fc 2.0 fc 1.3 fc
Collector / Collector (avenue)
2.4 fc 1.8 fc 1.2 fc
Collector / Local (street)
2.1 fc 1.6 fc 1.0 fc
Local / Local (street)
1.8 fc 1.4 fc 0.8 fc
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-19
Pedestrian hybrid beacon phases
(Credit: Michele Weisbart)
The RRFB has received Interim Approval via FHWA’s “Interim Approval for Optional Use of
Rectangular Rapid Flashing Beacons” (IA-11) dated July 16, 2008.
PEDESTRIAN HYBRID BEACON
A pedestrian hybrid beacon is used to warn and
control traffic at an unsignalized location so as to
help pedestrians cross a street or highway at a
marked crosswalk.
A pedestrian hybrid beacon can be used at a
location that does not meet traffic signal
warrants or at a location that meets traffic signal
warrants but a decision has been made to not
install a traffic control signal. A minimum number
of 20 pedestrians per hour is needed to warrant
installation. This is substantially less than the 93
minimum needed for a signal installation.
If beacons are used, they should be placed in
conjunction with signs, crosswalks, and advanced
yield lines to warn and control traffic at locations
where pedestrians enter or cross a street or highway. A pedestrian hybrid beacon should only
be installed at a marked crosswalk.
Installations should be performed according to the MUTCD Chapter 4F, “Pedestrian Hybrid
Beacons.”
8. Pedestrian Crossings
Broward Complete Streets Guidelines•Chapter 8, Page 8-20
Flashing
-
light signal assembly for pedestrian railroad
crossing
(Source: 2009 MUTCD Figure 8C.4)
Separate pedestrian gate at
a railroad crossing
(Source: 2009 MUTCD
Figure 8C.6)
PEDESTRIAN TOOLBOX FOR RAILROAD CROSSINGS
Pedestrian crossings of railroad tracks apply a
special set of tools. The following are the
primary tools to apply.
Pedestrian gates
Channelization of pedestrians through
gates and across tracks
Warning flashers
Signs
Audible signals
More details can be found in the MUTCD.
