Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2021 (pp. 50-66)
The Relationship Between Parental Involvement in Education
and Academic Achievement: A Meta-analysis Study
Aysel ATEŞ
PhD, Ministry of Education, Turkey
1. I
ntroduct Ion
What the factors that affect the academic achievement of
students are among the most curious topics of educators,
parents and researchers. It may be possible to separate these
factors as in-school and out-of-school. The qualifications
of teachers and school administrators (Adams & Forsyth,
2013; Anderson, 2012; Helvacı & Aygoğan, 2011), learning
environment and teaching methods (Straková, Simonová &
Greger, 2018) can be given as examples of in-school factors.
Out-of-school factors include the student’s socio-economic
(Epstein & Sheldon, 2019; Sénéchal & Young, 2008; Stright
& Yeo, 2014) and physiological status (Underwood, 2011),
self-efficacy, and parental involvement (Epstein, 1991; Jurado,
2014; Partin, 2017; Roksa & Kinsley, 2019; Schnepf, Klinger,
Volante & Jerrim, 2019) in education. Since students spend
a limited part of their time at school and most of their time
outside of school, out-of-school factors are at least as important
as in-school factors in students’ achievement. Students spend
their time outside of school with their social environment
and family. Therefore, it is expected to be related to family,
parental involvement in school and academic achievement of
the student. For this reason, the relationship between parental
involvement in school and students’ academic achievement has
been determined as the subject of this study.
When the theoretical ba
ckground of parental involvement
is examined, it is seen that there is no consensus on the
definition of the concept (Fan & Chen, 2001). For example;
For Grolnick & Slowiaczek (1994), parental involvement is a
selfless transfer of resources that parents have in line with their
children’s needs; For LaRocque, Kleiman & Darling (2011), the
investment of parents or caregivers in educational processes;
For El Nokali, Bachman & Votruba-Drzal (2010), it is the set
of behaviors that parents display at school and at home in
order to support the education of the child. Although different
definitions have been made for family participation, the
definition is based on the fact that the family is an important
factor in the education of the child.
The reason for the different definitions of parental
involvement is that the researchers focused on different
features of parental involvement. For example; Choi, Chang,
Kim & Reio (2015) and Epstein & Sheldon (2019) deal with
parental involvement on two grounds. The first of these
is home-based parental involvement. Here, providing the
necessary support and creating the structure for repeating
what has been learned at school at home. The second type is
school-based parental involvement. This type of involvement
includes communicating with the teacher and participating in
school activities (Choi et al., 2015; Epstein & Sheldon, 2019).
Hill, Witherspoon & Bartz (2018) talk about a separate type
Corresponding Author e-mail:
ates.aysel@yahoo.com
https://orcid.org/orcid.org/0000-0001-7582-6243
How to cite this article:
ATEŞ, A (2021). The Relationship
Between Parental Involvement in Education and Academic
Achievement: A Meta-analysis Study. Pegem Journal of Education
and Instruction, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2021, 50-66
Source of support:
Nil
Conflict of interest:
None.
DOI: 10.14527/pegegog.2021.00
Submission : 02.01.2021 Revision: 04.05.2021
Acceptence: 07.05.2021 Publication: 01.07.2021
RESEARCH
AR
TICLE WWW.PEGEGOG.NET
A
b
s
t
r
A
c
t
Th
e
a
im
o
f
t
hi
s
s
t
ud
y
i
s
t
o
exa
min
e
t
h
e
r
e
l
a
t
io
n
s
hip
bet
w
e
en
p
a
r
en
t
a
l
in
v
o
l
v
em
en
t
a
n
d
s
t
uden
ts
’
ac
ademic
ac
hie
v
em
en
t
u
sin
g
m
eta-a
n
a
l
ysis
m
et
h
o
d
.
I
n
t
h
e
r
ese
a
r
c
h, P
r
oq
ues
t
Dig
i
t
a
l
Di
ss
er
t
a
t
io
n
s,
W
e
b
o
f
S
cien
ce
,
ERI
C,
C
o
un
ci
l
o
f
H
ig
h
er
E
d
uc
a
t
io
n
Th
esi
s
C
en
t
er
a
n
d
T
ur
k
i
s
h
Ac
ademic
N
et
w
o
r
k
a
n
d
I
nf
o
r
m
a
t
io
n
C
en
t
er
w
er
e
s
c
a
nn
e
d
,
a
n
d
53
s
t
udies
in
acco
r
d
a
n
ce
w
i
t
h
t
h
e
s
t
ud
y
cr
i
t
er
i
a
w
er
e
in
c
l
ude
d
in
t
h
e
m
eta-a
n
a
l
ysis.
I
n
c
l
u
sio
n
cr
i
t
er
i
a
in
c
l
udes
r
ese
a
r
c
h
o
n
t
h
e
r
e
l
a
t
io
n
s
hip
bet
w
e
en
p
a
r
en
t
a
l
in
v
o
l
v
em
en
t
a
n
d
ac
ademic
ac
hie
v
em
en
t,
h
a
v
in
g
s
ufficien
t
q
u
a
nt
i
t
a
t
i
v
e
d
a
t
a
s
uc
h
a
s
co
rr
e
l
a
t
io
n
va
l
ue
o
r
r
eg
r
es
sio
n
co
efficien
t,
s
t
udies
in
v
o
l
v
in
g
p
r
im
a
r
y,
s
e
co
n
d
a
r
y
o
r
hig
h
s
c
h
oo
l
s
t
uden
ts
a
n
d
t
h
eir
fa
mi
lies.
Th
e
co
rr
e
l
a
t
io
n
va
l
ues
o
f
t
h
e
in
c
l
ude
d
s
t
udies
w
e
r
e
co
n
v
er
t
e
d
i
nt
o
Fi
s
h
er
z
va
l
u
es.
Th
e
a
v
era
g
e
eff
ec
t
size
w
a
s
eva
l
u
a
t
e
d
b
y
C
o
m
p
r
e
h
en
si
v
e
Met
a
A
n
a
ly
si
s
V3
(C
MA)
P
r
og
ra
m
.
A
s
a
r
es
u
l
t
o
f
t
h
e
s
t
ud
y,
i
t
wa
s
s
e
en
t
h
a
t
p
a
r
en
t
a
l
in
v
o
l
v
em
en
t
a
ff
ec
ts
ac
ademic
ac
hie
v
em
en
t.
I
n
addi
t
io
n,
i
t
wa
s
o
bs
er
v
e
d
t
h
a
t t
h
e
r
e
l
a
t
io
n
s
hip
bet
w
e
en
p
a
r
en
t
a
l
in
v
o
l
v
em
en
t
a
n
d
ac
ademic
ac
hie
v
em
en
t
di d
n
o
t
diff
er
sig
nific
a
nt
ly
acco
r
din
g
t
o
co
ur
s
e
a
r
e
a
s, s
c
h
oo
l
le
v
e
l
s
a
n
d
g
e
og
rap
hic
a
l
a
r
e
a
s.
I
n
t
hi
s
co
nt
ext,
s
ug
g
es
t
io
n
s
h
a
v
e
b
e
en
de
v
e
lo
p
e
d
f
o
r
en
s
ur
in
g
p
a
r
en
t
a
l
in
v
o
l
v
em
en
t
a
n
d
f
o
r
f
u
t
ur
e
r
ese
a
r
c
h
es.
K
e
yw
o
r
ds:
P
a
r
en
t
a
l
in
v
o
l
v
em
en
t,
ac
ademic
ac
hie
v
em
en
t,
s
c
h
oo
l,
t
e
ac
h
er
.
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
51
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
of involvement called academic socialization. According to
Hill et al. (2018), in academic socialization, the educational
expectations of the family are clear, the family talks with the
child about the educational processes, establishes a relationship
between current issues and course subjects, discusses learning
strategies with the child, supports his education dreams and
plans his future.
There are also different explanations as to why parental
involvement is important for student success. One of these is
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological approach. According to
Bronfenbrenner, there should be two-way interaction, unity
of goals, sustainable trust and a balance of power between
the environments or institutions in which the individual
lives for his development. The two main institutions where
students spend their lives are school and family. Therefore,
two-way interaction between school and family, unity
of goals, sustainable balance of trust and power, and the
quality of parental involvement are determinants of student
success. Leichter (1974) explains why parental involvement is
important for student success, by drawing attention to the fact
that families are also educators and families should be seen
as partners in the education and development of students.
According to him, when schools and teachers ask parents to be
partners for students’ education, they draw parents’ attention
to their children’s life at school, their mastery of skills and
learning abilities. Thus, the interaction between the school
and the family increases and the positive effect of the family
on the education of the child increases through this increase
in interaction. Epstein, Galindo & Sheldon (2011) state that
this increasing interaction creates “schools like families” and
“families like schools”.
Studies show that parental involvement in education i
n
line with expectations increases student academic success and
parental involvement is at least as important as school. For
instance; Epstein (1991), in a longitudinal study examining
the effect of parental involvement on students’ mathematics
and reading achievements, found that parental involvement
has a positive effect on overall academic achievement. Jeynes
(2007) showed that parental involvement increases academic
achievement with his research. Similar findings have been
obtained in other studies (Chang, Choib & Kim, 2015; Johnson
& Hull, 2014; Partin, 2017; Lam & Ducreux, 2013; Zhang, 2018).
Research also provides data on how parental involvement
increases students’ academic achievement. For example;
parental involvement increases students’ homework rates
(Dumont, Trautwein, Nagy & Nagengast, 2014; You, Lim, No
& Dang, 2015), improves language skills (Gubbinsa & Otero,
2016; Perkins, Syvertsen, Mincemoyer, Chilenski, Olson,
Berrena et al., 2016), reducing absenteeism (Benner, Boyle &
Sadler, 2016; Dotterer & Wehrspann; 2016; Gonida & Cortin,
2014). Families can increase the rate of doing homework
by helping children with their homework and by creating a
homework routine (You et al., 2015). In addition, families can
increase their academic achievement by going to centers where
learning is intensive such as libraries and museums, reading,
watching scientific broadcasting and talking about them, and
watching films in foreign languages (Dotterer & Wehrspann;
2016; Gubbinsa & Otero, 2016; Partin, 2017; Perkins et al., 2016;
Zhang, 2018; You et al., 2015).
It is possible to define academic achievement in various
ways. In this study, academic achievement was evaluated as
the scores obtained by the students from the subject areas
(mathematics, science, reading and foreign language), the
year-end general averages or test scores. It is not a clear concept
to define parental involvement as academic achievement. In
some studies, parental involvement is defined as parent-teacher
communication (Deslandes, Royer, Turcotte & Bertrand,
1997), parents communication with children (Keith, Reimers,
Fehrmann, Pottebaum & Aubey, 1986), and voluntary time
spent at school (Okpala, Okpala & Smith, 2001) otherwise
in some studies, It is defined as the parental involvement in
school activities such as conferences (Miedel & Reynolds,
1999), parents’ meetings dispose by school (Shaver & Walls,
1998) or helping the child with school-related activities such
as homework (Shumow & Miller, 2001). In the light of the
definitions given above, in this study, parental involvement
is
evaluated as the contribution of the family or caregivers to the
education of the child.
When the literature is examined, it is seen that there ar
e
various meta-analysis studies examining the relationship
between parental involvement and academic achievement. The
first study was conducted by Fan and Chen (2001). Fan and
Chen (2001) concluded that parental involvement is related
to academic achievement. Mattingly, Prislin, McKenzie,
Rodriguez, and Kayzar (2002) is another synthesis study.
Contrary to Fan and Chen (2001), Mattingly et al. (2002)
concluded that programs that support parental involvement
are not related to academic achievement.
Jeynes, who has intensive studies on parental involvement,
conducted four (4) meta-analysis studies (2003, 2005, 2007,
2012) on the subject. In each study, the researcher found that
two variables are related. In addition, Erion (2006), Patall,
Cooper, and Robinson (2008), Sénéchal and Young (2008), Hill
and Tyson (2009) supported the relationship between parental
involvement and achievement with the research results. One
of the last studies on the subject belongs to Castro, Expósito-
Casas, López-Martín, Lizasoain, Navarro-Asencio and Gaviria
(2015). Castro et al. (2015) synthesized the results of research
conducted in kindergartens, primary schools and secondary
schools published in 2000-2013. The findings of the synthesis
study showed that parental involvement has a moderate and
positive effect on academic achievement.
Studies whose results are cited show that the relationship
between parental involvement and academic achievement is
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
52
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
a subject of research at different school levels, involvement
types and programs. The topic poses conceptual challenges
for researchers because parental involvement has different
definitions and types of involvement in the literature. This
difficulty makes it difficult for a single or a few studies to address
all aspects of parental involvement. For this reason, meta-
analysis studies on parental involvement show limited coverage.
For example; it is far from being comprehensive in that the
concept is not addressed in general, it does not cover all course
areas (mathematics, science, reading, language skills) believed
to represent academic achievement, does not examine school
levels at the same time, or does not include research published in
a wide time period. For this reason, studies have limitations in
revealing the general effect of parental involvement in academic
achievement. In this respect, it can be said that more inclusive
studies are needed to reveal the relationship between parental
involvement and student achievement. As Fan & Chen (2001)
stated, most parental involvement studies were carried out
for homework, communication, family type, participation in
school activities or parental expectations, and reading activities
with children. In addition, as Chen & Gregory (2010) pointed
out, the nature of parental involvement should be considered as
a holistic concept that combines behavioral and psychological
perspectives. Integrating the results of independent research
can give an idea of the average effect size of the relationship
between parental involvement and the academic achievement
of the student, and can also answer questions about the
relationship between concepts.
In the light of the theoretical background that was t
ried
to be explained above, the purpose of this study is to examine
the average effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement in the light of the
studies carried out between 2004-2020 according to school
levels (primary, secondary and high school), course areas and
geographical regions. With the time interval of the research,
more homogeneous theoretical conceptual diversity of parental
involvement was aimed. In addition, a meta-analysis study
was conducted on the subject every year between 2001 and
2003 and the results of the research conducted up to that day
were integrated. However, post-2004 studies focused either
on research conducted in certain regions (e.g. Jeynes, 2012)
or only on the results of research conducted at a school level
(e.g. Castro, et al., 2015; Jeynes, 2005, 2007; Hill & Tyson,
2009) or It has integrated the results of research conducted
for a type of involvement and subject area (Erion, 2006; Patall,
Cooper & Robinson, 2008; Sénéchal & Young, 2008). For this
reason, there was a need to integrate the results of the research
conducted between 2004-2020. This meta-analysis study is
based on the relationship between parental involvement and
academic achievement, evaluating parental involvement with a
more holistic approach. Sub-problems were developed within
this framework are as follows:
1.
What is the average effect size of the relationship between
parental involvement and academic achievement?
2.
Does the average effect size of the relationship between
parental involvement and academic achievement
significantly differ according to the subject areas
(mathematics, science, reading skills, foreign language
skills)?
3.
Does the average effect size of the relationship between
parental involvement and academic achievement
significantly differ according to school levels (primary
school, secondary school, high school)?
4.
Does the average effect size of the relationship between
parental involvement and academic achievement
significantly differ by geographic regions (Asia, Europe,
Africa and America continents)?
M
e
t
h
o
d
Research Model
In this study, it was aimed to determine the average effect size
of the relationship between parental involvement and academic
achievement, and the meta-analysis method was used. The aim
of using the meta-analysis method is to integrate independent
research results investigating the same subject at different time
intervals and to reach a general conclusion about the subject
(Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011).
Data Collection
The data of study were collected by the researcher between
March 2020 - July 2020. It is also taken into account that
the researches included in the study were published between
2004 and July 2020, because the studies conducted until 2004
were either related to family participation types (Jeynes,
2012), a certain school level (Hill & Tayson, 2009) or a
certain subject area (Sénécha & Young, 2008). The full text
of all studies included in the meta-analysis study has been
reached. In the included studies, 30.5% of the data collection
tools were developed by the researchers, 8.5% were adapted,
28% were ready-made scales and 33% were information in
the educational statistics centers of the countries. Campbell
(1994), Fan (2001), Fantuzzu, Tighe & Childs (2000), Epstein,
Connors & Salinas (1993), Finn (1998), Lorenz & Wild (2007),
Kohl, Lengua & McMahon (2000) and Grolnick, Ryan & Deci
(1991) were among read-made used and adapted data collection
tools. In all measurement tools used in studies, high score
means higher parental involvement.
Validity
The effect size obtained in meta-analysis studies is valid for
the validity of the included studies (Petitti, 2000). It was
determined that the validity of data collection tools was
ensured in all studies included in this study.
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
53
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
“Keywords” Used in Search
While the researches to be included in the study are being
scanned in the relevant databases, “family involvement,
family support, parent participation, parental participation,
household, educational outcomes, academic achievement,
parent support, parental involvement, family participation”
are used. Keywords are used in various combinations in
different searches.
Searched Databases
The researches to be included in the meta-analysis study
were reached by scanning databases such as Proquest Digital
Dissertations, Web of Science, ERIC, Council of Higher
Education Thesis Center and Turkish Academic Network and
Information Center. After the first search, more than 11,300
studies were filtered, including articles, doctoral/master’s
theses and books. 513 studies were found to be significantly
associated with the topic of this meta-analysis study. Detailed
examination of the researches was made according to the
determined research criteria. 53 research including 48 articles,
1 master’s thesis and 4 doctoral dissertations were included in
the meta-analysis.
Inclusion Criteria
The criteria used in the selection of studies included in the
study are:
1.
Including sufficient quantitative data (including the
Pearson correlation coefficient or regression coefficient
for the relationship between family participation and
academic achievement),
2.
To be published between 2004 and July 2020 (the last date
the research data were collected),
Fig. 1: Prisma Flow Diagram for Meta-analaysis
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
54
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
3.
Researching the relationship between parental involvement
and academic achievement,
4.
Surveys include primary, secondary or high school
students or their families. 53 research including 48
articles, 1 master’s degree and 4 doctoral dissertations in
accordance with the inclusion criteria were included in
the meta-analysis. The flow diagram regarding the
process of including primary researches in the study is
given in Figure 1. The total sample size of the articles was
202.937 and the total sample size of their theses was
23.018. It was seen that the total sample size of the studies
included in the meta-analysis study reached a large
sample of 225.955. In the studies included in the meta-
analysis study, the r: β + 0.05λ procedure suggested by
Peterson & Brown (2005) was used in the imputation
stage of beta coefficients. When β is positive, λ 1 is
evaluated as λ while β is negative. The aim of the method
is to include more studies in the meta-analysis study.
Coding Method
Detailed and clear coding forms were prepared for 53 studies
included in the meta-analysis. Three parts were created
in the coding form: (a) The first part of the form is “Study
ID”. In this section, the sequence number, name, author (s),
publication year and type information of the research are
included. (b) The second part of the form was “Study content”.
The “study content” section covered the course areas in which
the relationship between parental involvement and academic
achievement was evaluated, the type of school and where the
research was conducted. (c) The third part of the form is “Study
data”. The “study data” section also included the correlation
coefficients and sample size information.
Coding Protocol Reliability
In the reliability calculation of the study, 30% (n = 17) of the
studies included in the coding form for inter-rater reliability
were determined using random assignment method. The
determined studies were coded into the coding form by a
second evaluator with a good level of English knowledge.
“Agreement rate”, which is the measure of inter-coder
reliability, which belongs to Orwin & Vevea (2009), was used.
Orwin & Vevea (2009) applied the formula of agreement rate
(AR = number of observations agreed upon / total number
of observations) and it was determined that there was .90
reliability.
Preparing Data for The Analysis
For the first research question of the meta-analysis study (What
is the average effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement?): (a) the correlation
values of the course areas were combined with the CMA
program. (b) In studies where regression values were given,
correlation values were reached by using Peterson and Brown’s
(2005) method. (c) The first research question was tested by
converting these values and the correlation values of the
studies that do not separate academic achievement according
to the course areas into Fisher z value.
For the second research question of the study (Does
the
average effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement significantly differ
according to the course areas?), the correlation values of the
relationship between parental involvement and the four basic
course areas (mathematics, science, reading skills and language
skills) were used to test the second research question.
Forthethirdresearchquestionofthestudy(Doestheaverage
effect size of the relationship between parental involvement and
academic achievement significantly differ according to school
levels?): school levels were evaluated in three groups as primary
school, secondary school and high school. For the last research
question (does the effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement significantly differ
according to geographical regions?): the countries where the
research was conducted were grouped as Asia, Europe, Africa
and America according to their continents.
Meta-analysis Process
The average effect size value of the meta-analysis study is
calculated with the data obtained from the researches whose
quality is examined and included in the study. Which model
will be used in meta-analysis (fixed effects or random effects
model) may vary depending on the result of the heterogeneity
test applied to the data obtained. In this meta-analysis study,
Comprehensive Meta-Analysis V3 Program (CMA) was used
for heterogeneity test and statistical analysis. I
2
and Chi-
Square degree of freedom heterogeneity test (Q statistic) was
used to test the true heterogeneity between studies included
in the meta-analysis study. The heterogeneity test tests the
null hypothesis, which assumes that all studies show the same
effect (Higgins, Thompson, Deeks & Altman, 2003). At this
stage, which model will be used in the meta-analysis study
becomes important and clear. In meta-analysis studies, it is
important to represent each research (whether it has a large
or small sample) within the meta-analysis summary effect
(Ellis, 2010). Researchers such as Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins
& Rothstein (2009), Field & Gillett (2010), and Schmidt, Oh &
Hayes (2009) find the conditions under which the fixed effects
model is suitable are limited, and the most basic assumption
of the model, a single real effect size assumption, is far from
reality. They recommend the use of random effects model
(Borenstein et al., 2009; Field & Gillett, 2010; Schmidt et al.,
2009). In this meta-analysis study, random effects model was
used for the reasons stated. Microsoft Excel 2010 program was
used for data entry into coding form and SPSS 21.0 program
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
55
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
was used for descriptive statistics. In the analysis of the meta-
analysis study, the significance level was determined as .05
and the confidence interval in the calculations used for the
effect size was determined as 95%. For effect size calculations,
correlation values were converted to Fisher z values and
analyzes were performed. In order to interpret the effect size,
the values were converted into the correlation coefficient. For
the interpretation of the average effect size, Cohen et al. (2011)
used the following benchmarks:
0.00 ≤ effect size value ≤ 0.10 very weak
0.10 ≤ effect size value ≤ 0.30 weak effect
0.30 ≤ effect size value ≤ 0.50 moderate effect
0.50 ≤ effect size value ≤ 0.80 strong level effect
Effect size ≥ 0.80 very strong effect
In addition, funnel plot, Begg and Mazumdar Rank
Correlations Test, Rosenthal’s Safe N Test, Egger’s Linear
Regression Test were used for publication bias.
Publication Bias
Before conducting the tests for publication bias, taking into
account the opinion of Card (2012), the researches included in
the meta-analysis study were grouped as articles and thesis to
perform moderator analysis. The findings obtained as a result
of the analysis are included in Table 1.
Table 1: Effect Sizes of Studies Regarding Publication Type and
Heterogeneity Test Results
Fig. 2: Funnel plot
explain why the studies are collected at the end of the funnel.
Although the funnel plot is used to determine publication bias,
Lau, Ioannidis, Terrin, Schmid & Olkin (2006) point out that the
graph should be interpreted with caution and does not contain
statistical information. For this reason, Rosenthal’s Safe N, Begg
and Mazumdar (Begg and Mazumdar’s rank correlation test)
Rank Correlations and Egger’s Linear Regression Test findings,
which contain statistical information about publication bias, are
included in Table 2.
Table 2: Confidence Tests and Results Showing the
Publication Bias of the Sampled Studies
Moderator
QB
%95 confidence interval
Heterogeneity
Public
ation
n
E.S.
Lo
wer
Up
per
df
P
Artical
48
1,312
0.377
0.35
0.39
1
0.25
Theses
5
0.408
0.40
0.40
When Table 1 is evaluated, it is observed that Q
B
= 1.312.
The Q
B
statistic value (Q
B
= 1.312, p = 0.252) was observed to
be significant because it exceeded the critical value in the χ
2
table at 1 degree of freedom (df: 1; χ2 (0.95) = 3.841) and 95%
significance level, and it has been evaluated that there was no
publication bias. Although it was observed that there was no
publication bias, funnel plot, Rosenthal’s Safe N, Begg and
Mazumdar (Begg and Mazumdar’s rank correlation test) Rank
Correlations and Egger’s Linear Regression tests were also
applied. The funnel chart is shown in Figure 2.
When the funnel plot is examined, it can be said that the
studies are in an image close to a symmetrical distribution to the
right and left of the vertical line showing the average effect size.
The studies collected in the upper part of the funnel plot show
large sampled studies, while the studies in the lower part show
studies with small samples. The fact that the total sample size of
the studies constituting the meta-analysis study is 225.955 may
Standard
Error
C
o
nfiden
ce
T
es
ts
D
a
t
a
o
f
C
o
nfiden
ce
T
es
ts
Z-
va
l
ue
f
o
r
o
bs
er
v
e
d
s
t
udies
145.96700
t
h
e
p-va
l
ue
f
o
r
o
bs
er
v
e
d
s
t
udies
0.00000
A
lp
h
a
0.05000
R
os
en
t
h
a
l
’
s
F
a
i
l-Sa
f
e
N
Ta
i
l
s
2.00000
Z
f
or
A
lp
h
a
1.95996
N
um
b
er
o
f
o
bs
er
v
e
d
s
t
udies
53.00000
F
a
i
l-
Sa
f
e
N
(FS
N)
13908.00000
Ta
u
0.28302
T
au
for
Z-value
2.99157
B
egg
a
n
d
Mazum
d
a
r
R
a
n
k
C
or
r
e
l
a
t
i
on
p-
va
l
ue
(1
t
a
i
le
d)
0.00139
p-
va
l
ur(2
t
a
i
le
d)
0.00278
S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
Er
r
o
r
3.84111
95%
lo
w
er
limi
t
(2
t
a
i
le
d)
–10.47287
95%
u
pp
er
limi
t
(2
t
a
i
le
d)
4.94982
E
gg
er
’
s
Reg
r
es
sio
n
I
nt
er
cep
t
t-va
l
ue
0.71894
df
51.00000
p-
va
l
ue
(1
t
a
i
le
d)
0.23773
p-
va
l
ue
(2
t
a
i
le
d)
0.47546
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
56
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
The value of p = 0.000 in Rosenthal’s Safe N Test, one of
the publication bias tests in Table 2, can be interpreted as the
statistical significance of the result of the meta-analysis study.
It is seen that 13908 studies are needed for the meta-analysis
study to lose its significance (p> 0.05). In other words, the
required number of studies is 13908 in order for the average
effect size of 0.387 to be statistically insignificant. This value
can be interpreted as the average effect size reached is resistant
to publication bias. Although there is no definite judgment
about how much Rosenthal Safe N value should be, Mullen,
Muellereile & Bryant (2001) state that if the value reached in the
result of N / (5k + 10) exceeds 1, the meta-analysis study result
(s) may be resistant for future research. When the necessary
calculation is made [13908 / (53 * 5 + 10) = 50.574] it is seen
that the result is greater than 1. With the result achieved, it
can be said that there is very low publication bias in the meta-
analysis study. Since Kendall’s Tau coefficient (0.28302) and p
values (0.00139) are not statistically significant, result of Begg
and Mazumdar Rank Correlations can be interpreted that
the studies included are not biased. In addition, the result of
Egger’s Linear Regression Test (p = 0.47546> 0.05) with 95%
confidence interval can be considered as a sign that there is
no publication bias in the meta-analysis study.
F
Ind Ings
In this section, the analysis and findings of the average effect
size of the relationship between parental involvement and
student academic achievement and of other research questions
are included.
Findings Regarding Effect Size Based on the Relation-
ship Between Parental Involvement and Academic
Achievement
It was stated in the previous sections that the random effects
model will be used because the research on the relationship
between parental involvement and academic achievement is
included in the field of social sciences and the studies included
in the study are carried out using different patterns, in different
cultures and school levels (Başol, 2016). However, in order
to determine which model (fixed effects model or random
effects model) will be used depending on the average effect
size distribution, heterogeneity test was applied to the data
obtained within the scope of the study.
As a result of the heterogeneity test, it was seen that the Q
value was statistically significant (Q: 19776.278; df (Q): 50; p:
0.00). In the χ2 table, it is seen that it exceeds the value (df: 50; χ2
(0.95) = 67.505) with 50 degrees of freedom and 95% significance
level. In addition, the fact that the p value (p = 0.000) is less than
0.05 indicates that the effect size distribution is heterogeneous.
The I
2
statistic value, another statistic used in heterogenic tests,
was also examined because it is stated that the Q statistic is
not strong enough to accurately test the heterogeneity of the
studies included in the meta-analysis studies (Huedo Medina,
Sánchez Meca, Marín Martínez, & Botella, 2006). Unlike the
Q statistic, the I
2
statistic is not sensitive to the effect size value
and the number of studies included in the meta-analysis. It is
clear that the I
2
statistic with the value of 99.737 exceeds the
75% value which can be accepted as the limit value. According
to the classification of I², 75% (I² = 75) values indicates that the
heterogeneity is at a high level (Higgins & Thompson, 2002).
The value obtained determined that the inter-study variability
or heterogeneity was at the level of 99.737%. According to the I²
classification, I² value 99.737% (I² = 99.737) can be interpreted
as a sign of high level of heterogeneity. In summary, the
heterogeneity test result (Q = 19776.278, p <0.05, I² = 99.737)
indicated that the effect size distribution is heterogeneous and
the random effects model should be used in the interpretation
of the average effect size.
When T
able 3 is examined, it is seen that the average effect
size obtained in the fixed effects model is 0.460 and in random
effects model is 0.387. Fisher z values were used for effect
sizes. When the Fisher z value (0.387) is converted into the
correlation value (0.369), it can be said that according to Cohen
et al. (2011) the average effect size of the relationship between
parental involvement and student academic achievement is
moderate and positive. When the statistical significance of
the analysis was evaluated according to the result of the z-test,
it was calculated as z = 8.904 and it was evaluated that the
analysis was statistically significant with the value of p = 0.000.
The average effect size and the weights of the studies
obtained as a result of the analysis made according to the
random effects model evaluating the relationship between
parental involvement and academic success are shown in the
forest plot in Figure 3. When the forest plot is examined, it
is seen that the research with the widest confidence interval
is Gonida & Cortina (2014) and the research with the lowest
Table 3: Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement
Heterogeneity Test
95% confidence interval
Test of null
Model
N
E.S
Lower
Limit
Upper
Limit
Z-value
P-value
Q value
df (Q)
P-value
I2
Fixed 53 0.460 0.455 0.464 218.411 0.000 19776.278 50 0.000 99.737
Random 53 0.387 0.302 0.473 8.904
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
57
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
confidence interval is Gubbins & Otero (2016). It can be
said that the highest weight percentage among the studies is
1.95%, and more than one study (such as Aikens & Barbarian,
2008; Benner et al., 2016; Gravis & B. Wright, 2011; Roska &
Kinsley, 2018) has this weight. The lowest weight percentage
is 38% and belongs to Núñez, Suárez, Rosário, Vallejo, Valle
& Epstein (2015). When the effect sizes of the studies included
in the meta-analysis study are examined, the biggest effect
size with 1.256 was Ogwari, Simiyu & Kindiki (2014) and the
lowest effect size with 0.110 was Gonida and Cortina (2014)
and Perkins et al. (2016). If the statistical results of the effect
size are evaluated in general, it can be seen that all 53 studies
have a positive effect.
The appropriateness of combining the effect sizes of
the studies included in the meta-analysis study was also
examined with the normal distribution chart. The normal
distribution of the effect sizes of the studies is given in Graphic
1 below. In Graph 1, it is observed that the effect sizes of the
studies are on both sides of the normal distribution line and
within confidence intervals. According to the evaluation of
Figure 3. Effect Size and Weights of the Studies
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
58
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
Graphic 1: Normal Distribution of Effect Sizes of Studies
Rosenberg, Adams & Gurevitch (2000), if the distribution is
normal, it is statistically possible to calculate the effect sizes
of the studies.
Findings Regarding Whether The Average Effect Size
of the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and
Academic Achievement Differentiates According to
Subject Areas (Mathematics, Science, Reading Skills,
Foreign Language Skills)
The statistical analysis findings for the sub-problem “ Does
the average effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement significantly differ
according to the subject areas (mathematics, science, reading
skills, foreign language skills)” are given in Table 4.
Examining the subject areas in which the research was
conducted, it is seen that the average effect size according to
Fisher z values of the relationship between parental involvement
and academic achievement is 0.303 for mathematics, 0.188 for
science, 0.402 for reading skills and 0.421 for foreign language
skills. Transforming Fisher z values into correlation values,
the average effect sizes of the subjects, according to Cohen et
al. (2011), mathematics lesson has a weak effect with 0.294,
science lesson has a weak effect with a value of 0.186, reading
skills has a moderate effect with a value of 0.382, and foreign
language skills with a value of 0.398. When the effect sizes
of the subject areas are evaluated, it is seen that parental
involvement has the greatest effect on foreign language
skills and least on the science subjects. However, it can be
accepted that parental involvement has a remarkable effect
on all learning areas. Subject areas heterogeneity test value
was determined as Q
B
= 0.275. In the χ2 table, 3 degrees of
freedom at 95% significance level was observed with a value
of 7.81473 (χ2
(0.95)
= 7.81473). The Q
B
value was determined at
0.275 and p = 0.000. On the other hand, the Q
B
value (Q
B
=
0.275; p = 0.000) is not significant because it is below the value
(χ2
(0.95)
= 7.81473) in the χ2 table with 3 degrees of freedom
and 95% significance level. Within the framework of the values
obtained, the heterogeneity hypothesis of the subject areas
was accepted in the fixed effects model. The average effect
sizes obtained according to the subject areas do not differ
statistically significantly.
Findings Regarding Whether the Average Effect Size of
the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and
Academic Achievement Differentiates According to
School Level (Primary School, Middle School and High
School)
The statistical analysis findings for the sub-problem “ Does
the average effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement significantly differ
according to school levels (primary school, secondary school,
high school)?” are included in Table 5.
In order to determine whether the relationship between
parental involvement and academic achievement differentiates
according to the school level, school levels are grouped as
primary school, middle school and high school. The effect sizes
were observed as 0.437 for primary school, 0.368 for middle
school and 0.339 for high school according to Fisher z value.
When Fisher z values are converted to correlation values, the
average effect size for school levels is 0.411 for primary school,
0.352 for middle school and 0.326 for high school (Cohen et al.,
2011). Heterogeneity test was conducted to determine whether
there is a significant difference between average effect sizes.
As a result of the heterogeneity test, Q
B
= 0.373; p = 0.723 was
found. The Q
B
value (Q
B
= 0.373; p = 0.723) is not significant
since it is below the critical value (χ2
(0.95)
= 5.99146) in the
χ2 table at 2 degrees of freedom and 95% significance level.
These findings indicate that the average effect size distribution
should be accepted in the fixed effects model. According t
o
Table 4: Effect Size Differences by Subject Areas
Variable QB
N
E.S.
95% confidence interval
Z-value P-value df(Q) P-value
Lower Upper
Subject 0,275
Matematics
20 0.303 0.248 0.358 10.746 0.000
3
0.000
Science
4
0.188
0.126
0.250
5.954
0.000
Reading
15 0.402 0.198 0.607 3.850 0.000
Foreign language
14 0.421 0.304 0.538 7.076 0.000
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
59
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
Table 5: Effect Size Differences by School Level
Variable QB
N
E.S.
%95 confidence interval
Z-value P-value df(Q) P-value
Lower Upper
School level
0,373
Primary
20 0.411 0.256 0.618 4.730 0.000
2
0.723
Middle
20 0.352 0.297 0.439 10.117 0.000
High
11 0.326 0.164 0.514 3.793 0.000
Table 6: Effect Size Differences by Geographical Regions
Variable
Q
N
N
E.S.
%95 confidence interval
Z-value P-value df(Q) P-value
Lower Upper
Region
0,328
Asia
7
0.400
0.259
0.541
5.532
0.000
3
0.148
Europe
6
0.262
0.178
0.346
6.115
0.000
Africa
2
0.760 0.210 1.30 1.536 0.025
America
38 0386 0.281 0.491 7.187 0.000
the school level, there is no statistically significant difference
between the average effect sizes of the studies included in the
meta-analysis study.
Findings Regarding Whether the Average Effect Size of
the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and
Academic Achievement Differentiates According to
Geographical Regions (Asia, Europe, Africa and America)
The statistical analysis findings for the sub-problem “Does
the average effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement significantly differ
by geographic regions (Asia, Europe, Africa and America
continents)?” are included in Table 6.
In order to determine whether the relationship between
parental involvement and academic achievement differs
according to geographical regions, geographical regions are
grouped according to the continents (Asia, Europe, Africa
and America) where the researches are carried out. When
the findings are evaluated, according to the Fisher z value
the effect size value for the Asian continent is 0.400, 0.266 for
the European continent, 0.760 for the African continent and
0.386 for the American continent. When the effect size values
are transformed into correlation values, the Asian continent
has a medium level of 0.380, the European continent has a
weak level of 0.256, the African continent has a strong level
of 0.641, and the American continent has a moderate effect
size of 0.386. In addition, the effect size between variables at
all geographical regions is positive. While the average effect
size of the geographical regions is 0.328 according to the
Fisher z value, when this value is converted to the correlation
value, the average effect size is 0.316 and it has been observed
to be medium and positive. The heterogeneity test result
was evaluated to determine whether the difference between
the effect sizes was significant. Among the groups formed
according to geographical regions, the Q
B
value (Q
B
= 0.328;
p = 0.148) is not significant since it is below the critical value
(χ2
(0.95)
= 7.81473) in the χ2 table at 3 degrees of freedom and
95% significance level. Because of these findings, the average
effect size distribution should be accepted in the fixed effects
model. There is no statistically significant difference between
groups of geographical regions.
c
o
n
c
l
u
s
I
o
n
A
n
d
d
I
s
c
u
ss
I
o
n
In this meta-analysis study, which aims to determine the
average effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement at the level of primary,
secondary and high schools, it was observed that the average
effect size of the relationship between parental involvement
and academic achievement was positive and at the medium
effect size level. It was obtained that the relationship between
parental involvement and academic achievement did not differ
significantly in terms of subject areas (mathematics, science,
reading and language skills). The effect size was found to be
weak for mathematics and science lessons, and moderate
for reading skills and foreign language. When the average
effect size of the relationship between parental involvement
and academic achievement was examined by school level,
it was determined that the average effect size did not differ
statistically. Another finding of the study was that the average
effect size for all school levels (primary school, middle school
and high school) was moderate. In addition, it was observed
that the average effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement did not significantly
differ according to geographical regions (Asia, Europe, Africa
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
61
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
and America continents). It has been determined that the
average effect size is moderate for the Asian and American
continents, strong for the African continent and weak for
the European continent. When the results obtained from the
study are evaluated, it can be said that there is a moderate
relationship between parental involvement and academic
achievement regardless of continent, school or course.
The e
ffect size finding of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement of the study coincide
with the study findings of Fan & Chen (2001), Jeynes (2003,
2005, 2007, 2012), Erion (2006), Senechal & Young (2008),
Hill & Tyson (2009) and Castro et al. (2015). On the other
hand, Mattingly et al. (2002) and Patall et al. (2008) are not
compatible with the study findings. The similarity or difference
of the study findings can be explained by the complex structure
of parental involvement (Roska & Kinsley, 2018). Within this
complexity, it is difficult to comment except that there is a
moderate relationship between parental involvement and
academic achievement. It is not clear whether a different
statement is the involvement of parent in school activities
or helping the child with homework at home is the source of
this relationship. The reason for this is parental involvement
defined assorted in the studies included in the meta-analysis
such as the hours the parents spend voluntarily at the school of
the child; involvement of parents in school activities, teacher-
parent communication; involvement in school activities such as
homework, at home; expectations related to the education level
of the child and talking to the child about school problems. It
is the fact that parental involvement was investigated in one
or more dimensions intertwinedly, so other criteria could
not be determined in terms
of s
ubject, except that the articles
investigated the relationship between parental involvement
and academic achievement. In this respect in determining
the studies to be included in the analysis, the results obtained
without any other criteria in terms of subject, do not show
which dimension of parental involvement is moderately
related to academic achievement. At the same time, it is clear
that studies examining the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement do not reflect the
causal relationship, and the data sets of the studies reflect only
the findings of the observed parts. This situation may explain
the different correlation values not only in meta-analysis
studies but also in other studies.
Finding t
he average effect size of the relationship between
parental involvement and academic achievement may require
answering the question of how parental involvement affects
academic achievement. Parental involvement sends the
message to the child that he and his performance are important
(Wang & Sheikh-Khalil, 2014) and that encouragement and
support will be provided (Wong, Ho, Wong, Tung, Chow,
Rao et al., 2018). Support and encouragement are likely
to bring high academic achievement. At the same time,
parental involvement, which provides suitable materials
and environment for learning, has a positive relationship
with academic success (Zhang, 2018). However, the parental
involvement literature lacks empirical study data, and it is
unclear whether the types of parental involvement develop
prior to the child’s academic achievement or as a result of
academic achievement. Therefore, conducting experimental
studies on parental involvement can provide data to the field.
In this study, it was observed that each of the mathematics,
science, reading and foreign language skills courses had
a positive relationship with parental involvement and
generally had a moderate effect size. The studies of Aikens &
Barbarian (2008), Graves & B. Wright (2011) and Stylianides
& Stylianides (2011) support the finding of this meta-analysis
study. In addition, Crosby, Rasinski, Padak & Yıldırım’s
(2015) research found that families’ reading activities at home
with their children has a positive relationship with children’s
reading skills. The findings of You et al. (2015) showed that
increased parental involvement means increased mathematics
achievement. Particularly, parents talking about math and
math homework, having and using math materials at home are
among the important factors affecting math achievement (You
et al., 2015). Johnson & Hull (2014), Bhanot & Jovanovic (2009)
and Zhang (2018) supported the relationship between parental
involvement and science achievement with their research.
Parents watching science/science-based programs with their
children, reading books about scientific discoveries, reading
science-fiction content or watching movies can be shown as
activities that increase science success (Bhanot & Jovanovic,
2009; Johnson & Hull, 2014; Zhang, 2018). As a result, parental
involvement positively affects the academic achievement of the
child for all courses.
Among t
he findings of the meta-analysis study is that
the
relationship between parental involvement and academic
achievement does not differ according to school levels. The
relationship between parental involvement and academic
achievement has a moderate average effect size according to
school levels. This finding of the study showed that parental
involvement is important for academic achievement at
all school levels (primary school, middle school and high
school). Chang et al., (2015), Englund, Luckner, Whaley &
Egeland (2004), Hayes (2012), Hughes & Kwok (2007), and
Straight & Yeo (2014) studies show that the relationship
between parental involvement and academic achievement
is positively related and meaningful. Contrary to popular
belief, parental involvement does not decrease as the school
level of the child increases (Azad & Semiyari, 2020). For
example; while parental involvement in primary school
is reading and doing homework with the child, carving
and singing (Stylianides & Stylianides, 2010; Xu, Benson,
Mudrey-Camino & Steiner, 2010; You et al., 2015), this type
of participation is not useful as child gets older. As the school
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
60
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
level of the child rises, parental involvement turns into high
academic expectations, supportive behaviors such as praising
effort and performance, and positively affects academic
achievement. It is observed that the academic achievement
of children who have high level of communication with the
parents is also high. The studies of Amponsah, Milledzi,
Ampofo & Gyambrah (2018) and Zhang (2018) show that with
the increase of the child’s school level, the parents’s interest in
academic performance increases and parents prefer academic
encouragement. Azad & Semiyari (2020) and Epsteine
(2005) stated in their research that the strong interaction
and relationship between parent-child and parent-teacher,
parenting skills affect the success of children at every school
level. It may be suggested that future research on parental
involvement should focus on which factors of involvement
have positive results for academic success and students. In
addition, one of the areas that can be focused on is when
parental involvement should be.
One of the findings of this meta-analysis study was that
the relationship between, parental involvement and academic
achievement did not differ statistically significantly at the
geographical level. The average effect size of the geographical
regions varied between weak level and strong level. It has been
determined that the African continent has a strong average
effect size, but two studies in accordance with the research
criteria determined in the African continent have been
reached, so it can be said that more research is needed on this
continent. On the other hand, it can be said that the sample of
primary studies included in the meta-analysis study constitutes
a cultural mosaic (such as America, Thailand, Hong Kong,
Germany, Iran, Ghana, the Netherlands, Singapore, and Chile).
The positive relationship between parental involvement and
academic achievement in different geographies and cultures
is an important data in terms of directing the attention of
schools to this field.
Based on the finding that there is a moderate relationship
between parental involvement and academic achievement,
which is the main finding of the study, it can be said that
the efforts of schools to improve parental involvement will
contribute to the academic achievement of students and the
effectiveness of the school, albeit at a moderate level. Efforts
should be made in terms of parental involvement in schools
because when families are left to their own preferences
regarding participation, it is seen that the involvement is
higher in families with a high socio-economic level and lower
in the opposite case (Epstein, 2005; Choi et al., 2015). In this
context, although teacher practices at all school levels, politics
and philosophy of the school significantly affect parental
involvement (Epstein et al., 2011; Jenkins, 2017; Partin, 2017),
studies indicate that the main actor influencing parental
involvement is teachers (Lewis, Kim & Bey, 2011; Murray,
McFarland-Piazza & Harrison, 2015). However, studies show
that many teachers have problems in communicating or in
relationships with parents. (Deslandes, Barma & Morin, 2015;
Ünal, Yıldırım & Çelik, 2010). de Bruïne, Willemse, D’Haem,
Griswold, Vloeberghs & Van Eynde (2014) and Miller, Lines,
Sullivan & Hermanutz (2013) attribute these problems teachers
experience to the inadequacy of the education they receive
regarding parental involvement. Based on this, it can be said
that teacher training programs should be developed on how
to ensure parental involvement. Apart from this, teachers can
be encouraged to guide parents on how to help their children
at home and how they can be involved in school, to organize
teacher-parent meetings, to make home visits, to cooperate to
support child learning.
Since parents are often dealing with teachers, the principal
is the key to ensuring parental involvement, although he is
the most important person in ensuring parental involvement.
Because it is the person who determines the policies
regarding school-parent relations, seeks an environment and
opportunity, solves problems when necessary, and becomes
a mediator. According to Sanders, Sheldon & Epstein (2005),
school administrators’ ability and capacity to cooperate is an
important indicator of parental involvement in schools. These
capacities of school administrators can act as a facilitator
for parental involvement. Professional networks can be
established to develop these skills of school administrators
or administrators working in the same region can share
experiences by establishing expanded groups. Thus, solution-
based sharing can take place. According to Barr & Saltmarsh
(2014), school administrators can effectively direct one-to-one
communication with parents by developing an atmosphere
of trust and compassion, and they can welcome and support
parental involvement. As Epstein et al. (2011) stated, many
schools leave parents alone in how to involve in education.
In order to eliminate this loneliness, school administrators
can conduct regular meetings with teachers to determine
what kind of parental involvement is needed for student
academic achievement. School administrators can try to get
to know the parents one by one and invite them to attend the
education of their children. In this way, they can also have
the opportunity to be role models for teachers. They can
mediate the development of school-parent partnership by
displaying supportive and reflective behaviors for teachers
to communicate with parents. In addition, working parents
cannot visit the school on days when the schools have parent
meetings (Altschul, 2011; Gonida & Cortina, 2014). School
administrators can ensure the involvement of parents in
the school by using the video conference method, electronic
or printed information notes and messages for families in
this situation. Parental involvement not only contributes
to academic achievement but also it brings along school
compliance (Chen, 2005), attendance and regular homework
habits (Dove, Neuharth-Pritchett, W.Wright & Wallinga,
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
62
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
2015), positive classroom behaviors (Hayes, 2012). When
parental involvement is considered together with these results,
it can be said that school administrators should take initiatives
to improve parental involvement.
It is seen that students and teachers gain various gains in
case of parental involvement. Students gains in their academic
learning, and teachers receive more support from both their
parents and their administrators in understanding families
and ensuring their involvement when they take initiatives in
this regard. Regarding parental involvement, it can be said that
in general, both families and schools should make an effort to
understand each other.
l
I
M
I
t
A
t
I
o
n
s
Most research on parental involvement is relational and
cannot explain causation. This meta-analysis study also has
limitations in combining the results of relational research and
is far from explaining causality. In addition, the fact that the
definitions of parental involvement used in researches are not
the same makes it difficult to make an operational definition of
parental involvement. However, the study, like all other meta-
analysis studies, focused on the existing literature. The study
focused on general parental involvement, not on a particular
parental involvement pattern or type. Thus, in whatever way
it is tried to be supported by research findings that parental
involvement is an important actor for student achievement. In
addition, instead of reducing academic achievement to one or
more courses, it was based on general academic achievement
and the results of studies (53 studies) conducted in different
geographies over a wide period of time were integrated. Every
year children attend school they attend home, and this should
not be overlooked. As a result, the effects of the school are seen
on the parents, and the effects of the parents on the school.
Considering that the academic achievement of the student is
among the main goals of the school, achievements in education
is worth developing every semester for policy makers, school
administrators, teachers and researchers.
r
e
F
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
References marked with an asterisk (*) included in the meta-analysis.
Adams, C. M. ve Forsyth, P. B. (2013). Revisiting the trust effect in
urban elementary schools. The Elementary School Journal,
114(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1086/670736
*Aikens, N. L., & Barbarin, O. (2008). Socioeconomic differences in
reading trajectories: the contribution of family, neighborhood,
and school contexts. Journal of educational psychology, 100 (2),
235-251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.2.235
*Altschul, I. (2011). Parental involvement and the academic
achievement of Mexican American youths: what kinds of
involvement in youths’ education matter most? Social Work
Research, 35 (3), 159-170. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/35.3.159
*Amponsah, M., Milledzi, E., Ampofo, E. & Gyambrah, M. (2018).
Relationship between parental involvement and academic
performance of senior high school students: the case of
ashanti mampong municipality of Ghana. American Journal of
Educational Research, 6 (1) (2018): 1-8. https://doi.org/ 10.12691/
education-6-1-1
Anderson, K. (2012). Examining relationships between enabling
structures, academic optimism and student achievement.
Unpublished Ph. D Thesis, Auburn University, Alabama.
*Azad, M., & Rashvand Semiyari, S. (2019). Effects of parents’
education and academic involvement on ESP learners’ self-
regulation and language achievement: a structural equation
modelling analysis. Research in English Language Pedagogy, 8
(1), 43-70. https://doi.org/10.30486/RELP.2019.669077
Barr, J., & Saltmarsh, S. (2014). “It all comes down to the
leadership” the role of the school principal in fostering
parent-school engagement. Educational Management
Administration & Leadership, 42 (4), 491-505. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1741143213502189
Başol, G. (2016). “Türkiye örnekleminde meta analiz çalışmalarının
içerik analizi ve metodolojik değerlendirilmesi” konusunda
Dinçer (2016) “Editöre Mektup”a cevaben. International
Journal of Human Sciences, 13 (1), 1395-1401. https://doi.
org/10.14687/ijhs.v13i1.3694
*Benner, A. D.
, Boyle, A. E., & Sadler, S. (2016). Parental involvement
and adolescents’ educational success: The roles of prior
achievement and socioeconomic status. Journal of youth and
adolescence, 45 (6), 1053-1064. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
s10964-016-0431-4
*Bhanot∗, R. T., & Jovanovic, J. (2009). The links between
parent behaviors and boys’ and girls’ science achievement
beliefs. Applied developmental science, 13 (1), 42-59. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1080/10888690802606784
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R.
(2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. West Sussex, UK: John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Contexts of child rearing: Problems and
prospects. American Psychologist, 34 (10), 844–850. https://doi.
org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.844
Campbell, J. R. (1994). Developing cross-cultural/cross-national
instruments: Cross-national methods and procedures.
International Journal of Educational Research, 21, 775-784.
Card, N. A. (2012). Applied meta-analysis for social science research.
New York: The Guilford Press
Castro, M., Expósito-Casas, E., López-Martín, E., Lizasoain,
L., Navarro-Asencio, E., & Gaviria, J. L. (2015). Parental
involvement on student academic achievement: A meta-
analysis. Educational research review, 14, 33-46. http://dx.doi.
org/doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2015.01.002
*Chang, M., Choi, N., & Kim, S. (2015). School involvement of
parents of linguistic and racial minorities and their children’s
mathematics performance. Educational Research and
Evaluation, 21 (3), 209-231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/138036
11.2015.1034283
*Chen, J. (2005) Relation of academic support from parents, teachers,
and peers to Hong Kong adolescents’ academic achievement:
the mediating role of academic engagement. Genetic, Social,
and General Psychology Monographs, 131 (2), 77-127. http://
dx.doi.org/10.3200/MONO.131.2.77-127
Chen, W-B., & Gregory, A. (2010). Parental involvement as a
protective factor during the transition to high school. The
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
63
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
Journal of Educational Research, 103 (1), 53-62. https://doi.
org/10.1080/00220670903231250
*Choi, N., Chang, M., Kim, S., & Reio Jr, T. G. (2015). A structural
model of parent involvement with demographic and academic
variables. Psychology in the Schools, 52 (2), 154-167. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1002/pits.21813
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in
education. New York: Routledge.
*Crosby, S., Rasinski, T., Padak, N., & Yıldırım, K. (2015) A 3-year
study of a school-based parental involvement program in early
literacy. The Journal of Educational Research, 108 (2), 165-172.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2013.867472
de Bruïne, E. J., Willemse, T. M., D’Haem, J., Griswold, P.,
Vloeberghs, L., & Van Eynde, S. (2014). Preparing teacher
candidates for family–school partnerships. European Journal
of Teacher Education, 37 (4), 409-425. https://doi.org/10.1080
/02619768.2014.912628
Deslandes, R., Royer, E., Turcotte, D., & Bertrand, R. (1997). School
achievement at the secondary level: Influence of parenting
style and parent involvement in schooling. McGill Journal of
Education, 32, 191–207.
*Domina, T. (2005). Leveling the home advantage: assessing
the effectiveness of parental involvement in elementary
school. Sociology of Education, 78 (3), 233-249. https://doi.
org/10.1177/003804070507800303
*Dotterer, A., & Wehrspann, E. (2016) Parent involvement and
academic outcomes among urban adolescents: examining
the
role of school engagement. Educational Psychology, 36 (4),
812-830. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1099617
*Dove, M., Neuharth-Pritchett, S., W. Wright, D., & Wallinga, C.
(2015) Parental involvement routines and former head start
children’s literacy outcomes,. Journal of Research in Childhood
Education, 29 (2), 173-186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0256854
3.2015.1011360
*
Driessen, G., Smit, F., & Sleegers, P. (2005). Parental involvement and
educational achievement. British educational researchjournal, 31
(4), 509-532. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01411920500148713
*Dumont, H., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Neumann, M., Niggli, A.,
& Schnyder, I. (2012). Does parental homework involvement
mediate the relationship between family background
and educational outcomes?. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 37 (1), 55- 69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
cedpsych.2011.09.004
*Dumont, H., Trautwein, U., Nagy, G., & Nagengast, B. (2014).
Quality of parental homework involvement: predictors and
reciprocal relations with academic functioning in the reading
domain. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106 (1), 144-161.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0034100
Ellis, P. (2010). The essentials of effect sizes. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
*El Nokali, N. E., Bachman, H. J., & Votruba‐Drzal, E. (2010). Parent
involvement and children’s academic and social development
in elementary school. Child Development, 81 (3), 988-1005.
https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070507800303
*Englund, M. M., Luckner, A. E., Whaley, G. J., & Egeland, B.
(2004). Children’s achievement in early elementary school:
Longitudinal effects of parental involvement, expectations, and
quality of assistance. Journal of educational psychology, 96 (4),
723-730. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.4.723
Epstein, J. L. (1991). Effects on student achievement of teachers’
practices of parent involvement. S. B. Silvern (Eds), Advances
in reading/language research: A research annual, Vol. 5. Literacy
through family, community, and school interaction (p. 261–276).
Elsevier Science: JAI Press.
Epstein, J. L., Connors, L. J., & Salinas, K. C. (1993). High school
and family partnerships: Surveys and summaries. Center on
Families, Communities, Schools and Children’s Learning.
Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships:
Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO:
Westview.
Epstein, J.
L. (2005). Attainable goals? The spirit and letter of
the
no child left behind act on parental involvement.
Sociology of Education, 78 (2), 179–182. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1177/003804070507800207
Epstein JL, Galindo CL, & Sheldon SB. (2011). Levels of leadership:
effects of district and school leaders on the quality of school
programs of family and community involvement. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 47 (3): 462 - 495. https://
doi:10.1177/0013161X10396929
Epstein, J. L., & Sheldon, S. B. (2019). Evaluate programs of
partnership: Critical considerations. J. L. Epstein (Eds) School,
family, and community partnerships: Your handbook for action
(pp. 323-359). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Erion, J. (2006). Parent tutoring: A meta-analysis. Education
and Treatment of Children, 29 (1), 79-106. https://doi.
org/10.2307/42899871
Fan, X., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students’
academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational psychology
review, 13 (1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009048817385
Fantuzzo, J., Tighe, E., & Childs, S. (2000). Family Involvement
Questionnaire: Amultivadateassessmentoffamilyparticipation
in early childhood education. Joumal of Educational Psychology,
92, 367-376. http://dx.doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.367
Field, A. P., & Gillett, R. (2010). How to do a meta‐analysis. British
Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 63 (3),
665-694.
Finn, J. D. (1998). Parental engagement that makes a difference.
Educational Leadership, 55(8), 20–24.
*Gonida, E. N., & Cortina, K. S. (2014). Parental involvement in
homework: Relations with parent and student achievement‐
related motivational beliefs and achievement. British Journal
of Educational Psychology, 84 (3), 376-396. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1111/bjep.12039
*Graves Jr, S. L., & Brown Wright, L. (2011). Parent involvement at
school entry: A national examination of group differences and
achievement. School Psychology International, 32 (1), 35-48.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0143034310396611
Grolnick, W. S., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1991). Inner resources
for school achievement: Motivational mediators of children’s
perceptions of their parents. Journal of educational
psychology, 83(4), 508.
Grolnick, W. S., & Slowiaczek, M. L. (1994). Parents’ involvement in
children’s schooling: A multidimensional conceptualization
and motivational model. Child development, 65 (1), 237-252.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00747.x
*Gubbins, V., & Otero, G. (2016). Effect of the parental involvement
style perceived by elementary school students at home on
Language and Mathematics performance in Chilean
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
64
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
schools. Educational Studies, 42 (2), 121-136. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1080/03055698.2016.1148586
*Hayes, D. (2012). Parental involvement and achievement outcomes in
African American adolescents. Journal of Comparative Family
Studies, 43 (4), 567-582. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.43.4.567
Helvacı, M. A., & Aydoğan, İ. (2011). Etkili okul ve etkili okul
müdürüne ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri. Uşak Üniversitesi Sosyal
Bilimler Dergisi, 4 (2), 42-61.
Higgins, J. P., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003).
Measuring inconsistency in meta analyses. British Medical
Journal, 2, 557-560. https://doi.org/10.1136/ bmj.327.7414.557
Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle
school: a meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that
promote achievement. Developmental psychology, 45 (3), 740-
763. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015362
Hill, N. E., Witherspoon, D. P., & Bartz, D. (2018). Parental
involvement in education during middle school: Perspectives of
ethnically diverse parents, teachers, and students. The Journal
of Educational Research, 111 (1), 12-27. https://doi.org/10.1080
/00220671.2016.1190910
*Hsu, H. Y., Zhang, D., Kwok, O. M., Li, Y., & Ju, S. (2010).
Distinguishing the inf luences of father’s and mother’s
involvement on adolescent academic achievement:
Analyses of Taiwan Education Panel Survey data. The
Journal of Early Adolescence, 31 (5), 694-713. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1177/0272431610373101
Huedo-Medina, T. B., Sanchez-Meca, J., Marin-Martinez, F., &
Botella, J. (2006). Assessing heterogeneity in meta-anlaysis:
Q statistic or I
2
index? Psychological Methods, 11 (2), 193-206.
*Hughes, J., & Kwok, O. M. (2007). Influence of s
tudent-teacher
and parent-teacher relationships on lower achieving readers’
engagement and achievement in the primary grades. Journal
of educational psychology, 99 (1), 39-51. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.39
*Hung, C. (2007) Family, schools and Taiwanese children’s
outcomes. Educational Research, 49 (2), 115-125. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1080/00131880701369644
*Huntsinger, C. S., & Jose, P. E. (2009). Parental involvement
in children’s schooling: Different meanings in different
cultures. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24 (4), 398-410.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.07.006
Jenkins, T. C. (2017). The impact of parent engagement on the academic
achievement of African American students: A phenomenological
study from the perspective of parents of middle school students
in the Northeastern Region of the United States. Unpublished
doctorate dissertation. St. John Fisher College, U.S.A
Jeynes, W. H. (2003). A meta-analysis the effects of parental
involvement on minority children’s academic achievement.
Education and Urban Society, 35 (2), 202-218. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0013124502239392
Jeynes, W. H. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relation of parental
involvement to urban elementary school student academic
achievement. Urban education, 40 (3), 237-269. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0042085905274540
Jeynes, W. H. (2007). The relationship between parental involvement
and urban secondary school student academic achievement.
A meta-analysis. Urban Education, 42 (1), 82- 110. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0042085906293818
Jeynes, W. H. (2012). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of different
types of parental involvement programs for urban
students. Urban Education, 47 (4), 706-742. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0042085912445643
*Johnson, U. & Hull, D. (2014) Parent involvement and science
achievement: A cross-classified multilevel latent growth curve
analysis. The Journal of Educational Research, 107 (5), 399-409.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2013.807488
*Jurado, M. (2014). Parental Involvement Impacting Student
Academic Success in AVID. Ursidae: The undergraduate
Research Journal at the University of Northern Colorado, 4 (2),
1-9. http://digscholarship.unco.edu/urj/vol4/iss2/11
*Karbach, J., Gottschling, J., Spengler, M., Hegewald, K., & Spinath,
F. M. (2013). Parental involvement and general cognitive ability
as predictors of domain-specific academic achievement in early
adolescence. Learning and Instruction, 23, 43-51. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.09.004
Keith, T. Z., Reimers, T. M., Fehrmann, P. G., Pottebaum, S. M., &
Aubey, L. W. (1986). Parental involvement, homework, and TV
time: Direct and indirect effects on high school achievement.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 373–380.
Kohl, G. O., Lengua, L. J., & McMahon, R. J. (2000). Parent
involvement in school conceptualizing multiple dimensions
and their relations with family and demographic risk factors.
Journal of School Psychology, 38, 501–523.
*Lam, B. & Ducreux, E. (2013). Parental influence and academic
achievement among middle school students: parent perspective.
Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 23 (5),
579-590. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2013.765823
La Rocque, M., K leima n, I . , & Da r l ing, S . M. (2011).
Parental involvement: The missing l ink in school
achievement. Preventing School Failure, 55 (3), 115-122. https://
doi.org/10.1080/10459880903472876
Lau, J., Ioannidis, J. P., Terrin, N., Schmid, C. H., & Olkin, I. (2006).
The case of the misleading funnel plot. Bmj, 333 (7568), 597-
600. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.333.7568.597
*Lee, J. S., & Bowen, N. K. (2006). Parent involvement, cultural capital,
and the achievement gap among elementary school children.
American Educational Research Journal, 43 (2), 193-218. https://
doi.org/10.3102/00028312043002193
Leichter, H. J. (1974). Some perspectives on the family as
educator. Teachers College Record, 76 (2), 175–217.
*Levpušček, M
., & Zupančič, M. (2009). Math achievement in
early adolescence: The role of parental involvement, teachers’
behavior, and students’ motivational beliefs about math. The
Journal of Early Adolescence, 29 (4), 541-570. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0272431608324189
Lewis, L. L., Kim, Y. A., & Bey, J. A. (2011). Teaching practices and
strategies to involve inner-city parents at home and in the
school. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27 (1), 221-234. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2010.08.005
Lorenz, F., & Wild, E. (2007). Parental involvement in schooling
e results concerning its structure and impact on students’
motivation. In M. Prenzel, & L. AllolioNäcke (Eds.), Studies on
the educational quality of schools. The final report on the DFG
Priority Program (pp. 299e316). Münster: Waxmann.
Mattingly, D. J., Prislin, R., McKenzie, T. L., Rodriguez, J. L., &
Kayzar, B. (2002). Evaluating evaluations: The case of parent
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
65
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
involvement programs. Review of Educational Research, 72 (4),
549-576. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543072004549
Miedel, W. T., & Reynolds, A. J. (1999). Parent involvement in early
intervention for disadvantaged children: Does it matter?
Journal of School Psychology, 37, 379 – 402. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S0022-4405(99)00023-0
Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis:
An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
Miller, G. E., Lines, C., Sullivan, E., & Hermanutz, K. (2013).
Preparing educators to partner with families. Teaching
Education, 24 (2), 150-163. https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.
2013.786889
*Mireles-Rios, R., & Romo, L. F. (2010). Maternal and teacher
interaction and student engagement in math and reading among
Mexican American girls from a rural community. Hispanic
Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 32 (3), 456-469. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0739986310374020
Mullen, B., Muellerleile, P., & Bryant, B. (2001). Cumulative meta-
analysis: a consideration of indicators of sufficiency and
stability. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27 (11),
1450-1462. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672012711006
Murray, E., McFarland-Piazza, L., & Harrison, L. J. (2015). Changing
patterns of parent–teacher communication and parent
involvement from preschool to school. Early child development
and care, 185 (7), 1031-1052. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443
0.2014.975223
*Núñez, J. C., Suárez, N., Rosário, P., Vallejo, G., Valle, A., &
Epstein, J. L. (2015). Relationships between perceived parental
involvement in homework, student homework behaviors,
and academic achievement: differences among elementary,
junior high, and high school students. Metacognition and
learning, 10 (3), 375-406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11409-
015-9135-5
*Ogwari, R. A., Simiyu, C., & Kindiki, J. N. (2014). The influence of
reciprocal interactions in the family on academic performance
among secondary school students in Kenya. Journal of Arts and
Humanities, 3 (7), 41-50. http://dx.doi.org/10.18533/journal.
v3i7.506
Okpala, C. O., Okpala, A. O.,& Smith, F. E.(2001). Parental involvement,
instructional expenditures, family socioeconomic attributes,
and student achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 95,
110 –115. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670109596579
Orwin, R. G., & Vevea, J. L. (2009). Evaluating Coding Decisions. In
H. Cooper, L. V. Hedges & J. C. Valentine (Eds.), The handbook
of research synthesis and meta-analysis. New York: Russell Sage
Foundation.
*Partin, D. (2017). The effect of parental valuation of education on
student achievement. Unpublished doctorate dissertation,
Carson-Newman University, U.S.A.
Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). Parent
involvement in homework: A research synthesis. Review
of
Educational Research, 78 (4), 1039-1101. https://doi.
org/10.3102/0034654308325185
*Perkins, D. F., Syvertsen, A. K., Mincemoyer, C., Chilenski, S.
M., Olson, J. R., Berrena, E., ... & Spoth, R. (2016). Thriving
in school: The role of sixth-grade adolescent–parent–
school relationships in predicting eighth-grade academic
outcomes. Youth & society, 48 (6), 739-762. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0044118X13512858
Peterson, R. A., & Brown, S. P. (2005). On the use of beta coefficients
in meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90 (1), 175-
181. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.90.1.175
Petitti, D. B. (2000). Meta-analysis, decision analysis, and cost-
effectiveness analysis: methods for quantitative synthesis in
medicine (No. 31). OUP USA.
*Plunkett, S. W., Behnke, A. O., Sands, T., & Choi, B. Y. (2009).
Adolescents’ reports of parental engagement and academic
achievement in immigrant families. Journal of youth and
adolescence, 38 (2), 257-268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-
008-9325-4
*Rogers, M. A., Theule, J., Ryan, B. A., Adams, G. R., & Keating,
L. (2009). Parental involvement and children’s school
achievement: Evidence for mediating processes. Canadian
Journal of School Psychology, 24 (1), 34-57. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0829573508328445
*Roksa, J., & Kinsley, P. (2019). The role of family support in
facilitating academic success of low-income students. Research
in Higher Education, 60 (4), 415-436. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11162-018-9525-z
Sanders, M., Sheldon, S., & Epstein, J. (2005). Improving schools’
partnership programs in the national network of partnership
schools. Journal of Educational Research & Policy Studies, 5
(1), 24-47.
Schmidt, F. L., Oh, I.-S., & Hayes, T. L. (2009). Fixed- versus random
effects models in meta-analysis: Model properties and an
emprical comparison of differences in results. British Journal
of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 62, 97-128.
Schnepf S.V., Klinger D.A., Volante L., & Jerrim J. (2019) Cross-
National trends in addressing socioeconomic inequality in
education. In: Volante L., Schnepf S., Jerrim J., Klinger D. (eds)
Socioeconomic Inequality and Student Outcomes. Education
Policy & Social Inequality, 4. Springer, Singapore.
Sénéchal, M., & Young, L. (2008). The effect of family literacy
interventions on children’s acquisition of reading from
kindergarten to grade 3: A meta-analytic review. Review
of Educational Research, 78 (4), 880 -907. https://doi.
org/10.3102/0034654308320319
Shaver, A. V., & Walls., R. T. (1998). Effect of Title I parent involvement
on student reading and mathematics achievement. Journal of
Research and Development in Education, 31, 90 –97.
Shumow, L., & Miller, J. D. (2001). Parents’ at-home and
at-
school academic involvement with young adolescents.
Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 68 –91. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0272431601021001004
*Simons-Morton, B., & Chen, R. (2009). Peer and parent influences on
school engagement among early adolescents. Youth & society, 41
(1), 3-25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X09334861
Straková, J., Simonová, J. ve Greger, D. (2018). Improving
mathematics results: does teachers’ academic optimism matter?
A study of lower secondary schools. School Effectiveness and
School Improvement, 29(3), 446-463. https://doi.org/10.1080/0
9243453.2018.1446449
*S
tright, A. D., & Yeo, K. L. (2014). Maternal parenting styles, school
involvement, and children’s school achievement and conduct in
Singapore. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106 (1), 301-314.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033821
*Stylianides, A. J., & Stylianides, G. J. (2011). A type of parental
involvement with an isomorphic effect on urban children’s
The
Relationship
Between
P
arental
Involvement
in
Education
and
Academic
Achievement:
A
Meta-analysis
Study
66
P
egem
Journal
of
Education
and
Instruction,
ISSN
2146-0655
mathematics, reading, science, and social studies achievement
at kindergarten entry. Urban education, 46 (3), 408-425. https://
doi.org/10.1177/0042085910377605
*Topor, D. R., Keane, S. P., Shelton, T. L., & Calkins, S. D. (2010).
Parent involvement and student academic performance:
A multiple mediational analysis. Journal of Prevention &
Intervention in the Community, 38 (3), 183-197. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1080/10852352.2010.486297
*Underwood, J. J. (2011). The role of cultural capital and parental
involvement in educational achievement and implications
for public policy. Unpublished master’s thesis, East Carolina
University, Greenville, NC.
Ünal, A., Yıldırım, A., & Çelik, M. (2010). Analysis of perceptions of
primary school principals and teachers about parents. Selçuk
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 23, 261-272.
*Vukovic, R. K., Roberts, S. O., & Green Wright, L. (2013).
From parental involvement to children’s mathematical
performance: The role of mathematics anxiety. Early Education
& Development, 24 (4), 446-467. https://doi.org/10.1080/1040
9289.2012.693430
*Wang, X. (2009). Maternal education, maternal language
acculturation, parental involvement, andmaternalsocial support
as predictors of the academic achievement and socioemotional
development of Asian American children. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
*Wang, M. T., & Sheikh‐Khalil, S. (2014). Does parental involvement
matter for student achievement and mental health in high
school? Child development, 85 (2), 610-625. https://doi.
org/10.1111/cdev.12153
*Wilson, B. R. (2009). A correlational study: Parental involvement to
student achievement in public education. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Lindenwood University, St Charles, MO.
*Wong, R. S. M., Ho, F. K. W., Wong, W. H. S., Tung, K. T. S., Chow,
C. B., Rao, N., ... & Ip, P. (2018). Parental involvement in primary
school education: Its relationship with children’s academic
performance and psychosocial competence through engaging
children with school. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27
(5), 1544-1555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-1011-2
*Xu, M., Benson, S. N.
K., Mudrey-Camino, R., & Steiner, R. P.
(2010). The relationship between parental involvement, self-
regulated learning, and reading achievement of fifth graders:
A path analysis using the ECLS-K database. Social Psychology
of Education, 13 (2), 237-269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-
009-9104-4
*You, S., Lim, S. A., No, U., & Dang, M. (2016). Multidimensional
aspects of parental involvement in Korean adolescents’
schooling: a mediating role of general and domain-specific
self-efficacy. Educational Psychology, 36 (5), 916-934. https://
doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1025705
*Zhang, Y. (2018). The associations between parental involvement
and science achievement via children’s perceived academic
competence and academic effort. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Syracuse University, NY. https://surface.syr.edu/
etd/894
