A SURVEY OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT
________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation
Presented to
The Faculty of the Graduate School
University of Missouri – Columbia
________________________________________________________________
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
________________________________________________________________
by
KAREN WILSON
Dr Larry Kreuger, Dissertation Advisor
MAY 2009
Copyright by Karen Wilson 2009
All Rights Reserved
APPROVAL PAGE
The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the graduate school, have examined the
dissertation entitled
A SURVEY OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT
Presented by Karen Wilson,
A candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their
opinion, it is worthy of acceptance.
_________________________________________
Dr. Larry Kreuger
_________________________________________
Dr. Judith Davenport
__________________________________________
Dr. John Hodges
_________________________________________
Dr. Greg Holliday
DEDICATION
I would like to thank my closest friends and my family for their support
throughout this process. They expected me to succeed and their unwavering high
expectations made me believe that it was possible. A special thanks to the central
office staff of the study agency. The support of this agency played a crucial role in my
success. I owe the biggest thanks of all to Dr. Greg Holliday. Dr. Holliday approached
me with an offer of assistance. He volunteered to be on my committee and he pointed
me in the right direction for choosing a topic and completing my research. He sat
through countless meetings with me to discuss my project. He showed me the path of
least resistance and shared his knowledge, wisdom, and sense of humor. I would have
struggled to complete this degree without his help and to him I dedicate the finished
product.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Larry Kreuger, the chair of my committee, for his
expert guidance and assistance. His calm and patient manner made completing this
project less intimidating. I will always appreciate the numerous times he read my
work, offered great advice and guidance, and willingly helped me navigate the
“system.” I also owe thanks to the members of my committee, Dr. Judith Davenport,
Dr. John Hodges, and Dr. Greg Holliday. Dr. Davenport was with me from the start. It
was she who first suggested research topics and helped me explore my areas of
interest. She inspired my interest in doctoral studies from the beginning. Dr. Holliday
and Dr. Hodges were flexible and accommodating in their role on my committee and
gave me encouragement and guidance every step of the way. Special thanks also go to
Kay, Ray, Lada and Claire; their technical assistance was invaluable.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………...ii
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………..v
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………..vi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………… 1
Conceptual Framework
Need for the Study
Statement of the Problem
Significance of the Study
Statement of the Purpose
Research Questions
Hypotheses
Definition of Terms
Assumption, Limitations, and Delimitations
Conclusion
2. LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………12
Evidence on Burnout
Previous Studies of Employee Engagement
Predictors of Burnout and Engagement
Summary
3. METHOD OF STUDY……………………………………………………..27
Participants
iv
Instrument
Procedure
4. RESULTS……………………………………………………………………33
Characteristics of Sample
Results
Hypothesis One
Hypothesis Two
Hypothesis Three
Hypothesis Four
5. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………..40
Summary of Key Findings
Discussion and Conclusions
Instrument
Implications for Social Work Policy
Implications for Social Work Practice
Implications for Social Work Research
Conclusion
REFRENCES…………………………………………………………………….…..51
APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………..56
VITA…………………………………………………………………………………59
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Reliability Measure of Pilot Study Data……………………………...31
2. Descriptive Statistics of Engagement Scores………………………...36
3. Participant Total Engagement Scores………………………………...36
4. Correlation – Years of Service and Engagement Score………………38
vi
A SURVEY OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT
KAREN WILSON
Dr. Larry Kreuger, Dissertation Advisor
ABSTRACT
This exploratory study examined the overall level of engagement for employees
of a public rehabilitation service agency, and the extent to which demographic and
work life variables such as gender, office location, job title, and years of service
contributed to their levels of engagement. Engagement was examined as a positive
social work construct and was compared to the negative concept of burnout (Freeney,
Y. & Tiernan, J. 2006 & Schaufli, W. B. & Bakker, A. B. 2004). The researcher
utilized a cross sectional internet survey to survey 308 employees of a state-wide
rehabilitation agency located in the Midwest region of the United States, using a
purposive non-probability sampling strategy. She queried respondents to collect data
on their levels of engagement in aggregate and anonymous form. Analysis was
conducted using t-tests and correlations. Results indicate no differences in engagement
scores for males and females, for individuals working in rural versus urban office
environments, or for years of service in the agency. Participants who supervised at
least one other person scored higher than individuals who did not supervise anyone.
1
Chapter One: Introduction
Staff members in human service occupations work closely with the individuals
they serve. They are a vital link in the chain of services provided to our nation’s weak
and vulnerable populations. However, working in the field is demanding, and employee
emotional exhaustion is common (Maslach, Schaufelli, & Leiter, 2001). Not surprising
then, human service workers have been identified as an occupational class with above
average risk for burnout (Soderfeldt, Soderfeldt, & Warg, 1995). Consequently,
researchers have been studying correlates and consequences of burnout for decades. It is
further understood that burnout has a negative impact not only upon individual workers
but upon entire organizations, including other agency staff as well as the clients they
serve (Garner, Knight, & Simpson, 2007). This study proposed that consideration
should be given to the concept of “engaging” workers in a rejuvenation effort intended
to alleviate the negative and costly effects of burnout in the field of human services.
It has not always been popular to study what might be considered “positive”
states of human functioning (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). In fact, traditional research has
focused on weakness, malfunctioning, and the study of negative states such as burnout.
Recently, however, there has been a shift in the focus of studies away from negative
conditions, towards research on human strengths and optimal functioning (Seligman &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). This shift aligns with the National Association of Social
Worker’s (NASW) code of ethics, which states that “A defining feature of social work
is the profession’s focus on individual wellbeing in a social context and the wellbeing of
society” (NASW Code of Ethics). Because the profession clearly values human
wellbeing and empowerment, this shift to studying positive states, such as engagement
2
with one’s work, is long overdue for social work researchers. Research into such
predictors of positive states as work engagement could foster the development of new
practice strategies designed not to correct a deficit, but rather to foster an individual’s
capacity to maximize his/her own functioning.
Although employee engagement is a new term in social work, it has been
familiar to those in the management community for almost two decades (Hobel, 2006).
Engagement is more than simple job satisfaction and high retention rates. Fully engaged
workers are those who are physically energized, emotionally connected, mentally
focused, and feel aligned with the purpose of the agency (Loehr & Schwartz, 2003).
Engaged employees have a bond with the organization. These individuals feel
empowered and in control of their fate at work. They identify with the agency mission
and are willing to commit the necessary emotional and personal energies necessary to
excel in their work. In short, engaged individuals willingly help achieve agency goals
and are emotionally involved in the tasks of their organization (Buhler, 2006).
Having an engaged workforce in the human services field is vitally important because
research shows that engaged workers help organizations reap benefits such as increased
efficiency, higher levels of customer satisfaction, higher productivity, and lower
turnover rates (Buhler, 2006). However, although there is a growing body of business-
oriented literature that describes how engaged employees contribute to the overall
success of an organization, little academic and empirical research in the human services
field has been conducted on the topic. More research is needed to determine levels of
engagement for workers in the human services field, to describe the benefits of
engagement, and to identify what factors may predict it.
3
Conceptual Framework
W. D. Kahn (1990) is credited with conceptualizing the major components of
employee engagement. His model proposes that engagement differs from basic job
involvement, in that it focuses not on worker skills but, rather, on how one commits
him/herself during the performance of the job. Engagement entails the active use of
emotions in addition to the simple use of cognition while completing work tasks (May,
Gilson, & Harter, 2004). The major propositions of the model are that people express
themselves cognitively, physically, and emotionally while performing their work roles.
The model proposes that, in order for individuals to fully engage with their job, three
psychological conditions must be met in the work environment: meaningfulness
(workers feeling that their job tasks are worthwhile), safety (feeling as though the work
environment is one of trust and supportiveness), and availability (workers having the
physical, emotional, and psychological means to engage in their job tasks at any given
moment) (Kahn, 1990).
Another major proposition of the engagement model is that these three key
psychological conditions are, to some degree, within the control of agency management.
Employee engagement is also something that is changeable, and can vary widely from
one workplace to another (Coffman & Gonzalez-Molina, 2002). Studies indicate that
workers are, to some extent, a reflection of the administrators of an agency. Low or
conversely high engagement scores have been traced back to the organization’s
leadership, from top to bottom (Townsend & Gebhardt, 2007). Therefore, the results of
engagement studies should have considerable applicability to the social work field. For
instance, leaders in human service agencies could utilize data from engagement studies
4
to create and implement strategies that would increase staff engagement, thereby
decreasing the potential for burnout and maximizing successful outcomes for the
agency and for the clients they serve.
Need for the study
Highly engaged employees make a substantive contribution to their agency and
may predict organizational success (Saks, 2006). But the reverse holds true as well.
Disengaged employees can be a serious liability. Ayers (2006) compares disengagement
to a cancer that can slowly erode an agency. Customer satisfaction, employee retention,
and productivity are all at risk unless burnout and disengagement can be controlled.
Unfortunately, some studies show that workers in general are not engaged with
their jobs. Frauenhiem’s (2006) review of a recent Sibson Consulting Firm survey
found that satisfaction scores with all major categories of work in the U.S. have
dropped, and just over half of the respondents in the study rated themselves as engaged,
or highly engaged. This lack of engagement affects large and small organizations all
over the world, causing them to incur excess costs, to under perform on crucial tasks,
and to create widespread customer dissatisfaction (Rampersad, 2006). Disengagement
can affect the financial solidarity of an agency as well. Ayers (2006) explains the
potential monetary impact by estimating that if an organization has employees who are
only 30% to 50% percent engaged then 50% to 70% of the payroll is an ineffective
expenditure of agency resources. And not only are these disengaged staff members
taking up resources in pay and benefits, they also work against the best interests of the
agency and can actually turn committed employees against the organization (Ayers,
2006).
5
To further emphasize how widespread this problem is and how critical it can be,
consider a recent Gallup study (Coffman & Gonzalez-Molina, 2002) in which hundreds
of companies were surveyed. Results from their surveys showed that 54% of workers
were not engaged and 17% were actively disengaged. In other words, the companies
surveyed were operating on only a fraction of the resources that should be available to
them.. In this study, the most engaged work groups were noted to be the most
productive and the rest were shown to be mediocre or, in some cases, destructive
(Coffman & Gonzalez-Molina, 2002).
It is not only the management and business literature that note a decrease in
worker engagement. Recent research also suggests concerns about rehabilitation
professionals’ job satisfaction rates. A 2004 national study conducted by the
Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) indicates that the average salary across
the nation for counselors is four to six thousand dollars below salaries in other human
service professions (Chan, 2004). The national study also notes that 26% of Vocational
Rehabilitation (VR) Counselors are considering leaving their agency to find better pay
(Chan, 2004). In addition to pay disparity, other factors in counselor satisfaction or
dissatisfaction are equally disconcerting. For instance, research indicates that students
who graduate with a master’s degree in Rehabilitation Counseling perceive VR
counselors to be overworked, underpaid, and overloaded with paperwork (Chan, 2004).
Published studies then provide clear indications that disengagement is a major
problem for many types of organizations. This study was designed to help social service
administrators understand and foster the positive state of staff engagement in their
agencies. An engaged workforce may provide a buffer against the costly effects of
6
disengagement and burnout, and may prove to be a critical element in achieving
successful outcomes for agencies as well as for their individual clients.
Statement of the Problem
Despite evidence of how destructive employee burnout or disengagement can
be, studies from the human services field on the opposite condition, engagement, are
limited. Surprisingly little academic and empirical research has been conducted overall,
and a large portion of it comes from the business management community (Saks, 2006).
Additionally, studies do not differentiate human services staff from workers in other
industries. To address this problem, more research that focuses specifically on the
engagement levels of workers in human services occupations is necessary. Empirical
data are needed so professionals can better understand employee engagement and use
what they learn about it to develop managerial interventions and alternative strategies
that foster engagement for human services workers.
Significance of the Study
The results of this study will provide insight and information for administrators,
practitioners, and researchers about employee engagement in the human services field.
Administrators from the agency that was evaluated may benefit from the survey
feedback, and could implement strategies for change that address participant responses.
Administrators in other agencies can also benefit by understanding how critical
engagement is, and that as a positive construct, it can be measured easily in a variety of
settings. Once the level of employee engagement is measured, administrators can
develop and implement change strategies that would actually improve staff engagement
7
in their organization, thereby potentially increasing the overall effectiveness of the
agency, and possibly decreasing levels of burnout.
Practitioners may benefit by understanding engagement and coming to realize
that they will be more successful in serving clients and, at the same time, at less risk for
occupational burnout, if they are working at a job in which they can fully engage.
Additionally, practitioners who function in supervisory positions may benefit by
understanding that staff usually adopt the characteristics and attitudes of their leaders,
making it difficult for staff to be engaged unless the managers are (Kerfoot, 2008).
Supervisors should, therefore, work toward creating a work environment that lends
itself to engagement from themselves and from the staff. Finally, researchers can use
the information to conduct similar studies that will contribute to the knowledge base
about staff engagement in human services workers. Researchers should attempt to
further determine what similarities in engagement levels may exist across occupations
in the field, what factors may predict engagement, and what the specific benefits of
engagement are for human services agencies.
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine factors that predict levels of
engagement for employees in a state-wide public human services agency located in the
Midwestern United States. Demographic and work life variables were examined to
determine if they impacted scores on the employee engagement scale. The exploratory
research questions and hypotheses were developed following a review of the literature
and the completion of a pilot study. As will be explained in Chapter Two, work life
variables are thought to be related to levels of employee engagement. However,
8
empirical studies on work engagement are limited and the literature is unclear as to
which variables are the strongest predictors. No identified studies have examined
workers specifically in the human service fields such as social work, psychology, or
rehabilitation. Therefore, variables for this study were chosen by reviewing the limited
data that are available regarding work engagement, followed by examining factors
related to burnout. The assumption of this study is that if a factor predicts burnout, that
same factor may have an opposite relationship to engagement. The factors which were
explored for this study include office location, employee’s years of service to the
agency, gender, and whether or not the employee’s job function includes supervising
other staff.
Research Questions
The research questions deemed most important for this study were narrowed
down to the following four:
1. To what extent do employees in rural and urban office locations differ in their
report of engagement?
2. To what extent does an employee’s years of service effect reported level of
engagement?
3. To what extent do male and female employees differ in their report of
engagement?
4. To what extent does performance of supervisory duties impact employee’s
reported level of engagement?
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Research Hypotheses
This study tested the following four hypotheses:
1. Respondents from rural office locations will report lower engagement scores than
those from urban office locations.
2. Respondents with more years of service will report lower engagement scores.
3. Male respondents will report higher levels of engagement than female
respondents.
4. Respondents with supervisory job titles will report higher engagement scores.
Variables
The Dependent variable in this study was the employee’s total score on the eight
item employee engagement scale. The Independent variables were the employee’s
number of years of service in the agency, the location of the employee’s office, his or
her gender, and supervisory job duties. Type I cutoff was set to .05.
Definition of Terms
For the purposes of this study, the following words and phrases are defined as
follows:
Employee Engagement. Engagement is more than simple job satisfaction. It can
best be described as a harnessing of one’s self to his or her roles at work. In
engagement, people express themselves cognitively, physically, and emotionally while
performing their work roles (Kahn, 1990).
Disengagement. In disengagement, people withdraw and defend themselves
physically, cognitively, or emotionally while performing their work roles (Kahn, 1990).
10
Burnout. Burnout is a psychological syndrome that results from dissatisfaction
with one’s job and involves exhaustion, cynicism, detachment from the job, and
ineffectiveness (Maslach, 2003).
Human services workers. Individuals who are employed in a wide variety of
fields, including social work, psychology, or rehabilitation. They provide direct client
services or supervise and administer client services programs.
Office location. For this study, office location was defined by the participating
agency as (a) Urban: Those offices in the Kansas City, Missouri, or St. Louis, Missouri,
region, and (b) Rural: Those offices outside of the Kansas City or St. Louis regions.
Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations
A major assumption of this study was that all participants would answer the
survey questions truthfully. Anecdotal comments from participants in the pilot study
noted that the instrument was simple and took only minutes to complete. It therefore
was assumed that a significant number of those surveyed would respond. Additionally,
it was assumed that the various offices of this agency operate in a similar manner with
respect to policies and practices despite the fact that they are located in geographical
areas that span the state.
There are notable limitations to this study. It is understood that biases may be
inherent in self-reported information, for instance. Additionally, the perceptions of the
employees examined in this survey are specific to the rehabilitation field and may differ
from the opinions of staff working in other disciplines; therefore, caution is urged
regarding external validity. Because the survey was conducted using an internet-based
11
program, there is the possibility that participants will be concerned about the privacy or
confidentiality of their responses, causing fewer to participate fully (Couper, 2000).
One typical limitation associated with internet surveys is the obvious factor that not all
households have internet access (Norusis, 2006). However, in this study, the survey was
sent to the employee’s work site and, in this setting, every employee has access to a
computer with internet service, thus making this one of the delimitations of the study
design. An additional delimitation is noted in that participants were given permission by
the administration of the agency to answer the survey during working hours. Also, the
survey was in a simple, easy to follow format and took only minutes to complete.
Conclusion
This chapter focused on the overall purpose and direction for this study. Chapter Two
will highlight the key research in this study area with a review of the pertinent literature.
The following Chapters Three, Four, and Five will provide a detailed description of the
study, its findings and a discussion of its implications for policy, practice, and research
in the field of human services.
12
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Although there is abundant social services research on burnout, empirical data
on employee engagement are limited (Freeney &Tiernan, 2006). Most of what has been
written has come from consulting firms and those practicing in the field of management
(Saks, 2006). The following review of the literature will discuss the evidence on
burnout, including its costly negative effects and how it is now being compared to
engagement. Highlights from previous studies on employee engagement will also be
reviewed. Additionally, studies which examine predictive factors for burnout and
engagement will be explored.
Evidence on Burnout
The relationship that people have with their work and the difficulties that can
occur if that relationship goes awry have long been recognized as a significant social
problem and the term “burnout” is now routinely used to describe this phenomenon
(Maslach et al., 2001). Numerous studies on burnout have been conducted which
conclude that job burnout is a psychological syndrome that can develop in response to
chronic stressors at work (Maslach et al., 2001). It is also understood that burnout can
negatively impact individuals and agencies in many ways.
Maslach et al. (2001) divided the negative consequences of burnout into two
categories, job performance and individual health. Job performance burnout is
associated with absenteeism, intention to the leave the job, and actual staff turnover.
Researchers have reported that there is a negative monetary impact from staff turnover.
In some organizations, the price of recruiting and training new workers can be more
than $50,000 per employee (Yoon & Kelly, 2008). When staff that experience burnout
13
choose to stay in their respective jobs, their productivity and effectiveness decreases.
Additionally, people who are burned out can cause personal conflicts on the job site and
may disrupt the job tasks of their co-workers. In other words, burnout is contagious and
can perpetuate itself on the job. There is also some evidence that burnout can spillover
into an employee’s home life. Finally, the health component of burnout is correlated
with stress-related conditions and illness -- substance abuse, anxiety, depression, and
decreased self-esteem have all been associated with burnout (Maslach et al., 2001).
Although burnout has been studied for decades, it continues to be a major
problem for all types of organizations (Ayers, 2006). Levels of burnout do not appear to
be decreasing and may be on the rise. A recent Conference Board survey in the United
States cited that fewer Americans are satisfied with their work. In 1995, 56% of those
surveyed were satisfied with their vacation policies, for instance, and ten years later
only 51% were. Satisfaction with physical facilities also showed a decline over the 10
year study, from 56% down to 52%. Moreover, age and income did not seem to affect
employee satisfaction, either. The noted trend was simply all downward (Baldwin,
2005). In addition, the Sibson Consulting Firm recently conducted a survey of 1,200 US
employees. It found that, in general, satisfaction scores with all major categories of
work have dropped, and just over half of the respondents to their study rated themselves
as engaged or highly engaged (Frauenhiem, 2006).
Coffman and Gonzalez-Molina (2002) indicate that, in general, employees start
out energized, engaged, and ready to take on the responsibility of the job. However,
over the first six months of employment only 38% remain engaged and after ten years
engagement drops to about 20%. This is a particularly alarming statistic when one of
14
the most important characteristics for any human services agency is the quality and
effectiveness of its personnel (Ewalt, 1991).
Another recent area of concern and possible factor in high burnout levels is the
increased demand for services with a subsequent decrease in federal and local revenues
to provide programming. As a result, administrators and program managers are focusing
more on efficiency, effectiveness of services, and increased accountability of direct
service providers which, in turn, can increase stress and dissatisfaction among staff
(Ritchie, Kirche & Rubens, 2006). Additionally, human services workers are operating
in an increasingly bureaucratic system which, in many settings, limits the effect a staff
member can have on a client’s life. This bureaucratization allows for better control and
coordination of large numbers of workers in one location, but is also increases the
division of labor. As a result, worker isolation, fragmentation, and de-skilling of
workers is going on (Arches, 1991).
A majority of the previous research on burnout has focused on identifying its
antecedents and outcomes. Only in recent years have researchers started to pay attention
to the opposite state of burnout: employee engagement (Gonzalez-Roma, Schaufeli,
Bakker, & Loret, 2004). Now studies are being conducted which seek to compare the
positive construct of engagement with the negative state of burnout. The proposition is
that an understanding of engagement could yield perspectives about how to alleviate
burnout (Maslach et al., 2001). It is believed that, in the process of building an
environment where employees are likely to become engaged, many of the problems
associated with stress and dissatisfaction in the workplace will be overcome (Freeney &
Tiernan, 2006). This requires a focus not only on burnout prevention, but also on
15
developing strategies to foster energy, involvement, and effectiveness in employees
(Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
Researchers in these recent studies have investigated staff engagement to
determine if it is the polar opposite of burnout (Maslach et al., 2001, Schaufeli &
Bakker, 2004, Gonzalez-Roma, et al. 2004, Freeney & Tiernan, 2006). So far, research
findings support the proposition that engagement is the antithesis to burnout (Freeney &
Tiernan, 2006). Engagement is said to be characterized by vigor, dedication, and
absorption, whereas the core dimensions of burnout are described as exhaustion,
cynicism, and inefficacy (Gonzalez-Roma et al. 2006). Burnout and engagement are
further reported to be opposite in that they have different consequences and different
predictors (Schaufli & Bakker, 2004).
Kahn (1990) compared burnout with disengagement and said that disengaged
employees are ones who withdraw from the job physically, emotionally, and cognitively
which, in turn, likens it to the state of burnout (Freeney & Tiernan, 2006). An important
distinction between engagement and burnout is that burnout relates specifically to job
demands. Engagement, on the other hand, is indicated by job resources such as job
control, the availability of learning opportunities, access to necessary materials,
participation in the decision-making process, positive reinforcement, and support from
colleagues (Freeney & Tiernan, 2006).
Maslach and Leiter (1997) conducted burnout profiles with staff in two hospital
units. Employees in one unit displayed typical burnout profiles, scoring unfavorably
across six areas of measurement; by comparison the other unit scored favorably on
factors related to engagement, including workload, control, fairness, and
16
meaningfulness. One of the most interesting findings of the researchers was that
patients in the units where staff were engaged were significantly more satisfied with the
level of care than those who were treated in units where the staff was burned out
(Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
Recent research indicates then that the conditions of engagement and burnout are
unquestionably linked, or indeed opposites of one another. It should be understood that
an engaged employee will not be burned out, but an employee who is not burned out is
not necessarily engaged (Freeney & Tiernan, 2006). The comparison research between
burnout and engagement is an important contribution to the field and should be
continued. However, it does not look specifically at workers in the human services field
and does not identify indicators and consequences of engagement in human service
occupations.
Previous Studies of Employee Engagement
The most comprehensive study to date of employee engagement has come from
The Gallup Organization’s research using the Q12 instrument. For more than 50 years,
the Gallup poll has been questioning customers and employees on a variety of
workplace topics. Their surveys attempt to find out more than simply how satisfied
persons are with their jobs. It addresses the extent to which employees needs are being
met and examines the emotional ties they have to their employment. According to
Coffman and Gonzalez-Molina (2002), results of this Gallup research have shown that
business units in which employees score in the top half on employee engagement have,
on average, a 56% higher success rate with customer loyalty, a 44% higher success rate
17
on staff turnover, a 50% higher success rate on productivity outcomes, and a 33%
higher success rate on profitability outcomes.
One key component of the Gallup Q12 instrument is that it includes items that
Gallup researchers have found to be under the influence of the manager. This allows for
practicality of change based upon the survey results. Over a period of time, Gallup
consultants have educated managers and have partnered with companies to implement
change strategies. Between the first and second year of implementing changes those
companies have, on average, scored one-half standard deviation higher on employee
engagement and sometimes as much as a full standard deviation or more of growth after
three years. Current evidence from the Gallup 12 studies has demonstrated that, to some
extent, employee engagement is influenced by the manager, is changeable, and can vary
widely from one workplace to another (Coffman & Gonzalez-Molina, 2002).
Kahn’s research sought to identify the psychological conditions necessary to
explain moments of personal engagement and personal disengagement among
individuals across different situations at work (Kahn, 1990). His work used the methods
of observation and interviewing to conduct a qualitative study of personal engagement
among 16 camp counselors and 16 architectural firm members. Kahn found that people
draw upon themselves to varying degrees while performing work tasks and they can
commit themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally in the various roles they
perform. Or, they may choose to withdraw and disengage from their work roles and
work tasks. Results of Kahn’s study suggest that there are three psychological
conditions that shape how people perform their roles -- meaningfulness, safety, and
availability.
18
Kahn’s identification of the these three psychological conditions now serves as a
framework for the study of employee engagement. Specifically, Kahn (1990) describes
the state of meaningfulness as one in which workers feel worthwhile, useful, and
valuable, and that they are making a difference and are appreciated for the work they
do. Safety is described as an environment in which people feel an ability to act as what
would be normal for the individual without fear of negative consequences. Safety is
found in situations in which workers trust that they will not suffer because of their
engagement to their work and where they perceive the climate to be one of openness
and supportiveness. Availability is defined by Kahn (1990) as the sense of having the
personal physical, emotional, and psychological means with which to engage with their
job tasks at any particular moment. This model acknowledges that personal coping
mechanisms and factors in life outside the job can impact a workers engagement to the
job. Kahn’s (1990) work also concluded that people have dimensions of themselves that
they prefer to use and express in the course of role performance. If they can match their
preferred actions with the psychological conditions existent in their work environment
and work roles, then they will engage with the job (Kahn, 1990).
May, Gilson, and Harter (2004) conducted a field study in a large Midwestern
insurance agency. Using a survey format they explored why some individuals fully
engage in their work while others become alienated or completely disengaged. Results
of this study confirmed that engagement differs from simple job satisfaction. They
agreed that engagement actually entails the active use of emotions and behaviors in
addition to cognitions. Overall, study results supported Kahn’s earlier work in that
psychological meaningfulness and safety were positively linked to employee investment
19
in work roles. Additionally, job enrichment and role fit were positively related to
psychological meaningfulness. Having a supportive supervisor and good relations with
co-workers were related to feelings of psychological safety on the job.
Harter, Schmidt, and Hayes (2002) completed a meta-analysis of prior studies
on employee engagement that were conducted by the Gallup Organization. The
researchers examined the relationship between employee satisfaction-engagement, and
the business-unit outcomes of customer satisfaction, productivity, profit, employee
turnover, and accidents. Harter et al. (2002) noted that one of the defining elements of
employee engagement is the actionable quality of the measured concepts. In other
words, employee engagement is related to meaningful business outcomes and many of
the core issues of engagement are ones over which managers can have substantial
influence. High levels of satisfaction and employee engagement were positively
correlated with customer satisfaction, profitability, productivity, and safety outcomes.
On average, business units that had employee scores in the top quartile range on the
engagement scale had a one to four percent higher profitability. Additionally,
businesses who scored in the top quartile on engagement boasted lower turnover
percentage rates (Harter et al., 2002).
In a 2006 cross national study, Schaufeli, Bakker, and Salanova (2006) surveyed
14,521 employees in various occupations, using a self-report questionnaire that
measured work engagement. The researchers found that engagement is not only the
opposite of burnout but that it has its own characteristics, which were labeled vigor,
dedication, and absorption. The researchers concluded that engagement is similar to
burnout in that it is a stable, non-transient state that increases slightly with age.
20
Additionally, blue collar workers were less engaged than managers, educators, and
police officers. Engagement did not seem to differ systematically between genders
(Schaufeli et al., 2006).
Saks (2006) surveyed 102 employees in a variety of industries and in one study
tested a model of antecedents and consequences of job and organizational engagement.
Saks (2006) differentiated job engagement from organization engagement and
concluded that organizational engagement is a person’s attitude and attachment to
his/her company, whereas employee engagement is the degree to which an employee is
actually absorbed in the performance of his/her own individual job role. Saks drew from
Kahn’s earlier work and from the burnout literature to pose a model of employee
engagement in which the antecedents of engagement are identified as (a) job
characteristics, (b) perceived organization support, (c) perceived supervisor support, (d)
rewards and recognition, (e) procedural justice, and (f) distributive justice. In this same
model, the consequences of employee engagement are identified as job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, intention to stay on the job, and organizational citizenship
behavior (Saks, 2006). Results of the survey showed that the psychological conditions
leading to organization and job engagement, as well as the consequences of each, are
different. The study results also showed that perceived organization support predicted
job and organization engagement; by comparison, particular job characteristics
predicted individual job engagement. The researchers concluded that procedural justice
predicted organization engagement and that job and organization engagement are both
related to employee attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. In particular, job and
organization engagement predict job satisfaction, commitment to the organization, and
21
intention to quit. Overall, the results of the study suggest that workers who perceived
higher organizational support were more likely to reciprocate with greater levels of
engagement to their individual job roles (Saks, 2006).
Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti, and Xanthopoulou (2007) surveyed 805 Finnish
teachers to investigate the role of available job resources in mitigating the negative
effects of disruptive student behavior upon a teacher’s engagement with his or her job.
The researchers discovered that, while disruptive student behavior was negatively
related to a teacher’s job engagement, job resources such as supervisor support,
innovativeness, appreciation, and organizational climate were important factors that
helped teachers cope with demanding and disruptive students. In other words, even
when faced with difficult students, the availability of job resources could lessen the
negative effects. In fact, job resources were discovered to be the strongest predictor of
all the work engagement dimensions studied (Bakker et al., 2007). One of the most
innovative contributions this study makes to the literature is the discovery that job
resources are particularly important to workers in highly stressful working conditions.
Conversely, job resources could be less important to employees who are not
experiencing a significant amount of stress (Bakker, et al., 2007).
Predictors of Burnout and Engagement
Because researchers are only now beginning to define and explore the
phenomenon of workplace engagement, the specific factors which might predict it are
still unclear. However, comparison studies of burnout and engagement suggest that the
two conditions are related in the sense that they may be on opposite ends of a
continuum. Therefore, in order to begin to understand what may predict engagement, it
22
is logical to examine factors associated with burnout and appropriate to assume that
those factors would have the opposite relationship to work engagement.
Some studies have sought to determine if the practice location, as in a rural
versus an urban setting, may influence levels of burnout. Rholand (2000), for instance,
surveyed Iowa mental health center directors to determine if individuals working in
rural locations would have higher levels of burnout. The study proposed that rural work
settings were likely to have certain negative conditions not typically associated with
urban practices. These conditions included running an agency with fewer employees,
smaller budgets, and having to provide more direct client care. Even after exploring the
above noted factors, results from the sample indicated that burnout was not significantly
different for individuals working in rural settings when compared to their urban
colleagues.
In a more recent study, Sprang, Clark, & Whitt-Woosley (2007), examined the
relationship between burnout and practice location. Their results differed from the
Rholand findings in that burnout levels were shown to be increased for individuals
working in rural areas. This study utilized the Professional Quality of Life Scale to
study patterns of compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, and burnout in a sample
of 1,121 mental health providers. Analysis of the data indicated that respondents who
worked in the most rural areas of the state had higher levels of burnout than those who
worked in urban areas. This study proposed that the increased burnout levels could be
attributed to factors associated with rural practice, such as chronic shortages of mental
health professionals, limited resources, geographical isolation, and highly demanding
caseloads. The researchers concluded that the general duties, burdens, and stressors of
23
rural work appear to generate burnout (Sprang, Clark, & Whitt-Woosley, 2007). Watt
and Kelly (1996) also indicated that isolation can be a problem for rural social workers.
They reported that problems in urban areas are usually noticed by the public and the
profession. However, difficulties for individuals in rural communities are often not
acknowledged by the public until a crisis, such as floods or farm foreclosures, have
occurred. This neglect of the persons in the environment can leave rural social workers
feeling marginalized or less important than their urban counterparts. Isolation was also
noted by Kelly and Lauderdale (1996) who indicated that because there are fewer rural
human service practitioners they tend to be isolated from others in their profession and
have less access to the contacts and supports that are necessary for them to stay current
in their field. Other studies have also characterized rural practice settings as having
more stressors than their urban counterparts. Problems such as professional isolation
(Waltman, 1990; Watt & Kelly, 1996), decreased availability of formal resources
(Davenport & Davenport, 1982), confidentiality issues, and difficulties with
transportation (Ginsberg, 1998) have all been noted.
Previous burnout studies differ somewhat in actual results, but a number of them
agree that there are negative factors inherent in rural agency or practice settings that
could contribute to increased levels of burnout. Operating from this assumption, it is
expected that rural workers might also be less engaged with their job. Because the
sample population for the current study worked in locations that span a midwestern
state, including very rural as well as highly urban areas, office location as it relates to
level of engagement was examined to determine if it might be a factor for this
population.
24
The amount of work experience is another variable that has been studied for its
association with burnout. Research findings on the subject are conflicting. Some studies
indicate that individuals new to their jobs score higher on measures of burnout while
others indicate no relationship between years of service and burnout. Yildirim’s (2008)
study in which 214 Turkish school counselors were surveyed, using the Maslach
Burnout Inventory, found that individuals with one to three years of service scored
higher on depersonalization than did individuals with more years of work experience. In
a different study, Schwartz, Tiamiyu and Dwyer (2007) sampled 1,200 social workers
to find out if social work clinicians decline in hope or exhibit increased burnout over the
course of their careers. They discovered that burnout seemed to decline with increasing
years in private practice but remained mostly unchanged for those in public practice
settings. While some studies on burnout agree that individuals with less years of service
are likely to report higher levels of burnout, the opposite is thought to be true of
engagement. Coffman and Gonzalez-Molina (2002) report that, in general, workers start
off energized and engaged with their jobs but tend to drop off in as little as six months,
and significantly decline in engagement after ten years of employment. Therefore, an
individual’s “years of service” to the agency was examined in this study to see if
participants’ scores do indeed decline over the course of their career.
Researchers have often considered gender as a possible predictive factor in
levels of burnout for human services employees. In their study of 1,121 mental health
professionals, Sprang, Clark, and Whitt-Woosley (2007) found support for a gender
influence as females in the study were found to have a greater risk of suffering from
burnout. However, in the Turkish study of school counselors conducted by Yildirim
25
(2008) results showed that levels of burnout did not differ significantly between males
and females. While actual results vary, some studies suggest that females are more
vulnerable to stress and, therefore, tend to report higher levels of burnout than do their
male counterparts (Sprang, Clark, & Whitt-Woosley, 2007). Similar results have been
noted in engagement surveys. In the Schaufeli, Bakker, and Salanova study (2006) the
Belgian, German, Finnish, and Norwegian men scored slightly higher on the three
engagement dimensions than did women in the study. In examining whether or not men
will score higher on the instrument used in this study, gender will be compared to the
participant’s total score on the engagement scale.
The literature on work engagement suggests that levels of engagement are
influenced by the agency’s management staff. Because employees tend to reflect or
imitate the characteristics of their leaders, it may be difficult for them to engage if the
leaders of the organization do not demonstrate positive behaviors associated with
engagement (Kerfoot, 2008). If this theoretical assertion is accurate, studies should
show that supervisors would report at least as high, if not higher, levels of engagement
than do the staff of an agency. This study will explore levels of engagement for
individuals who supervise other staff with the assumption that their reported levels will
be higher than for workers who do not supervise others.
Summary
This review of the literature shows that job burnout and disengagement are a
continuing social work concern. Conversely, studies on employee engagement clearly
demonstrate the benefits of having an engaged workforce. Research indicates that by
better understanding engagement, new strategies could be developed that would
26
increase levels of employee engagement, thereby possibly decreasing the costly
negative effects of burnout for employees in the human services field. Unfortunately,
research that examines staff engagement specifically in the human services field is
extremely limited. Additional research is needed to further our knowledge of
engagement in human services settings and to identify what the predictors and
consequences of engagement might be. A thorough study of engagement in human
services occupations should lead to the development of specific strategies that could
increase engagement for the staff of other human services organizations.
27
Chapter Three: Methods of Study
Participants
To examine employee engagement in this study group, a web-based survey was
conducted in April 2008 among a group of 308 employees of a statewide public
rehabilitation agency located in the midwest region of the United States. Approval for
conducting the project was received from the University of Missouri Campus
Institutional Review Board and from the assistant commissioner of the study agency.
With approval from the assistant commissioner of the agency, an email was sent to
every employee prior to the survey encouraging participation and giving all employees
permission to complete the instrument during their work hours. The survey was sent to
every employee of the study agency. Participants were sent an email that included
information about the survey and requested their informed consent. Upon giving
consent, participants could access a link to the survey. After accessing the secure
website they could point and click to complete the eight survey questions and the
accompanying demographic information.
Instrument
This web-based Employee Engagement Survey
(See Appendix) was conducted
for the purpose of studying engagement in human service employees and to further
develop and refine an instrument that gathers engagement information pertinent to the
human services field. Web surveys are gaining in popularity as they allow researchers to
obtain large amounts of data without hiring interviewers or paying for paper and
postage. Additionally, web surveys allow data to be collected and downloaded into
statistical software without additional data entry (Witt, 1998). However, web surveys
28
are not without limitations. Even well designed surveys can be overwhelmed by the
mass of other data-gathering activities on the web. Participants may tune out the survey
or base their responses on the visual effect and entertainment value of the instrument
(Couper, 2000). Additionally, research shows that web surveys fail to meet the response
rates of traditional mail surveys (Couper, 2000).
After consideration of the above noted benefits and potential limitations of
utilizing web surveys for empirical research, the researcher determined that sufficient
controls were in place to negate the potential difficulties and elected to utilize a web-
based survey format. The Survey Monkey tool was chosen to host this study because it
met the needs of the researcher. The program was both easy to use and economical. A
professional subscription was obtained for a minimal fee per month and allowed the
researcher to send up to one thousand surveys with an unlimited number of questions.
The questionnaire was sent via email attachment, which provided an easy and
immediate means of response for the participants. The results were delivered in
aggregate and anonymous form and the data remained private but could be shared with
others given the researcher’s consent (Survey Monkey, 2008).
The web-based questionnaire entitled “Employee Engagement Survey” was
created and pilot tested with a similar group of employees before its use in this study.
The pilot instrument was designed to evaluate employees’ level of engagement with
their current jobs. Items were first gathered by reviewing the Gallup Organizations 12-
question instrument designed to measure employee engagement (Thackray, 2001).
Gallup conducted numerous focus groups and completed thousands of interviews with
workers in order to identify the key areas that measure engagement. Having been used
29
with approximately 1.5 million employees, Gallup’s tool makes an ideal instrument
from which to model the survey questions for this study (Thackray, 2001). Also
reviewed was the Decisionwise Employee Engagement Survey. This instrument, found
at http://www.decwise.com/employee-surveys.html, was chosen for review because it
measures concepts that are driven by frontline management and focuses on employee
performance and actionable feedback, all of which are key propositions of the
engagement model. Finally, the Baldrige “Are We Making Progress” questionnaire that
had been conducted in the study agency in previous years was obtained and reviewed in
an effort to determine what other types of satisfaction surveys these employees had
participated in (http://www.baldrige.nist.gov/PDF_files/Progress.pdf).
The major components of the model for employee engagement were considered
when choosing questions for the pilot survey. This model proposes that in order for
individuals to fully engage with their jobs, the three psychological conditions of
meaningfulness, safety, and availability must be met in the work environment (Kahn,
1990). Questions were developed with these constructs in mind. Questions one, three,
and five addressed the condition of meaningfulness. Questions two, four and seven
addressed the condition of safety. Questions six and eight addressed the condition of
availability.
Another major proposition of the engagement model is that the three key
psychological conditions are to some degree within the control of the management of a
given agency (Coffman & Gonzalez-Molina, 2002). Therefore, the survey questions
were created using items of measurement that are, to some extent, under the control of
agency managers. Thus, based on survey results, actionable strategies for increasing
30
engagement could be developed and implemented by leaders of the participating
agency.
Once the pilot survey was developed, face validity was addressed by conducting
interviews with five professionals in the field. They were chosen based on their
positions within the study agency or their years of experience in human services.
Among these professionals was the assistant commissioner of the agency, several
current employees of the agency, and a professor of Social Work at the University of
Missouri. Input from these individuals reinforced the selection of the items for the
survey. The result was an original instrument consisting of seven questions designed to
evaluate respondents’ engagement with their jobs. Also included in the survey were
seven demographic questions which would give information about the respondents and
which were believed to be possible predictors of engagement. One open-ended question
was included to allow for feedback from participants.
The reliability of the instrument was tested during the pilot study, conducted in
March 2007. The pilot survey contained only seven questions and was sent to 267
public human services staff members who worked for a similar agency. Question eight
has since been added to the survey in order to further measure availability needs of the
participants and to examine potential turnover rates among staff. The data from the pilot
study were gathered and, using “employee engagement” as the single construct to be
measured, Cronbach’s Alpha, a measure of internal consistency, was conducted.
Cronbach’s Alpha is used to determine if all the items within the instrument measure
the same thing. The closer the alpha is to 1.00, the greater the internal consistency of the
items being measured (George & Mallery, 2006). The marker of an acceptable
31
reliability coefficient is generally 0.7. However, even lower thresholds are sometimes
reported in the literature (Nunnaly, 1978). Results, shown in Table I, confirmed that the
instrument used in the pilot study was reliable with a Cronbach’s score of .773. The
scale means indicated that the item contributions were all fairly correlated except for the
question about having friends at work. However, even without deletion of this question,
the instrument met the acceptable level of reliability and was determined suitable for
use with the current study.
Table I
Reliability Measure of Pilot Study Data
______________________________________________________________________
Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items
.773 7
_____________________________________
Scale Mean if Scale Variance Corrected Cronbach’s
Item Deleted if Item Deleted Item-Total Alpha if
Correlation Item Deleted
job recognition 28.71 15.439 .666 .703
supervisors
concern 28.21 16.026 .669 .703
agency mission 28.29 18.166 .542 .735
friends @ work 27.82 21.645 .207 .790
ideas & opinion 28.69 16.902 .577 .726
tools and equip 28.19 19.319 .383 .766
co-workers 28.01 20.385 .395 .763
_____________________________________________________________________
Procedure
An email was sent to the agency email address for each employee of the public
service agency. The email included information about the survey, a request for
informed consent, and a link to the secure survey website which was hosted by
http://www.surveymonkey.com. Once participants clicked on the link they were able
to complete the instrument online. Participants were given 10 days to complete the
32
survey. Results were sent to the researcher via the Survey Monkey tool in aggregate
and anonymous form and were downloaded into the SPSS program for analysis.
33
Chapter Four: Results
Chapter One established the need for empirical research that would determine
the levels of staff engagement specific to a human services agency. Chapter Two
focused on the literature related to the negative effects of burnout and examined how
burnout is now being compared to the positive state of engagement. Predictive factors
of burnout and engagement plus highlights and results from previous studies on
employee engagement were also reviewed in Chapter Two. Chapter Three described the
methods and procedures used to determine the overall level of engagement for staff in
the study agency and to determine the extent to which demographics and work-life
variables such as office location, job title, gender, and years of service impacted
engagement levels. This chapter will describe the participants in the study and the
results of analyses used to examine the research questions.
Characteristics of Sample
To examine employee engagement, an electronic survey was sent via email to a
complete enumeration of employees in a public statewide human service agency located
in the midwestern region of the United States. Of the 308 employees in the agency, 211
(n = 211) completed and submitted the survey, an overall response rate of 68.5 percent.
There are no populations to compare this sample to because no other studies have
examined employee engagement specifically among human services workers. However,
the sample is similar in make-up to the population that completed the pilot study survey.
Both populations, the pilot and the current study sample, were employed by a public
state agency and were housed under the same state department. The offices were
statewide, with office locations in geographic regions around the state. The work
34
assignments for the two groups were similar in that both populations served individuals
with disabilities.
Of the respondents to this survey, 80 percent (n = 167) were female and 20
percent (n = 42) were male. Seventy-eight percent categorized themselves as non-
supervisory staff (n = 162) and 22 percent (n = 46) said they supervised at least one
person. When asked to indicate their positions within the agency 74.3 percent (n = 156)
responded as professional staff, whereas 25.7 percent (n = 54) reported themselves to be
support staff. Number of years of service in the agency varied among respondents with
26.1 percent (n = 55) having been employed zero to five years; 22.7 percent (n = 48)
employed 6 to 10 years; 19.9 percent (n = 42) employed 11 to 15 years; 9.5 percent (n =
20) employed 16 to 20 years; and 22.3 percent (n = 47) employed for over 20 years with
the agency. Sixty-nine percent (n = 145) of the sample indicated that they worked in a
non-urban, rural area and 31 percent (n = 64) said they worked in an urban office
setting. Ten respondents did not answer each of the eight engagement scale questions;
therefore, their surveys were dropped from the statistical analysis, leaving a sample of
201 respondents. Additionally, some of the respondents did not answer all of the
demographic questions so their surveys were dropped only from the statistical test for
questions which addressed the missing variable.
Results
The survey instrument was designed to measure participants’ levels of
engagement with their jobs. Once the responses were collected, Chronbach’s Alpha
was conducted to test the reliability of the instrument. The resulting score of .798 from
35
the instrument used in this study was similar to that of the pilot study and is considered
to be within the acceptable range of reliability (Nunnaly, 1978).
As noted in the Appendix, participants had the following six choices when
answering each question: strongly disagree, disagree, slightly disagree, slightly agree,
agree, and strongly agree. Strongly disagree was coded as one point, whereas strongly
agree was coded as six points. Therefore, the minimum score possible was eight and the
maximum score possible was 48. Scores ranging from 32 to 48 would indicate a greater
degree of engagement than those ranking below 32. The majority of the respondents
reported themselves to be engaged with their jobs (M = 39.29, SD = 4.83). Table II
describes the sample responses to each of the eight items on the engagement scale, and
Table III describes the sample’s overall engagement score.
36
Table II
Descriptive Statistics from Engagement Scale
Descriptive Statistics – Engagement Scores
N Range
Mini-
mum
Maxi-
mum Mean
Q1
recognition
201 5.00 1.00 6.00
4.651
7
Q2 concern
201 5.00 1.00 6.00
5.039
8
Q3 mission
201 4.00 2.00 6.00
5.010
0
Q4 friends
201 4.00 2.00 6.00
5.149
3
Q5
ideas/opinion
s
201 5.00 1.00 6.00
4.711
4
Q6
tools/equip.
201 5.00 1.00 6.00
4.855
7
Q7 co-
workers
201 5.00 1.00 6.00
5.084
6
Q8 intent to
stay
201 5.00 1.00 6.00
4.791
0
Valid N 201
Table III
Participant’s Total Engagement Score
__________________________________________________________________
N Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation
Total Score 201 16.00 48.00 39.2935 4.83409______
Hypothesis One: The relationship between office location and participant’s level
of engagement. The purpose of this study was to determine levels of engagement for
37
staff in a human services agency and to examine the extent to which work-life and
demographic variables impact engagement scores. Hypothesis one states that
respondents from rural office locations will report lower engagement scores than those
from urban office locations. The independent samples T-test was chosen as the
statistical measure for this question. The T-test was used to evaluate the difference in
means between two groups and assumes that the variables are normally distributed
within each group and that the variation of scores in the two groups is not reliably
different (Wienbach and Grinnell, 2007). Results of the Levene’s test indicated that
equal variances could be assumed and an alpha level (a) was set to .05 to limit Type I
error or falsely accepting the null. In this sample, the mean score for rural participants
was 39.5145 (SD = 4.74), N=138, whereas the mean score for urban participants was
38.7869 (SD = 5.06), N=61, thus indicating that rural respondents reported higher levels
of engagement than those who worked in urban areas. However, the score showed no
statistical significance between the rural and urban employees’ total engagement scores
and the hypothesis was not supported (t -.977, 197 df, p = .330).
Hypothesis Two: The relationship between years of service to the agency and
participants’ level of engagement. Hypothesis two states that respondents with more
years of service will report lower engagement scores. Bivariate correlation analysis was
used to examine this question and to determine the degree of relationship between years
of service and level of engagement. Because the data in this sample are not at the
interval or ratio level of measurement, the Spearman’s Rho Correlation was chosen. The
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for normality indicated the total score and years of service
variables were not normally distributed, thus further substantiating the use of
38
Spearman’s Rho. Spearman’s Rho produces a correlation coefficient that is either
positive or negative and has a numerical value between -1.00 and +1.00 (Wienbach and
Grinnell, 2007). For the purpose of this study, the generally accepted .05 rejection level
was used to determine if the hypothesis could be supported (Wienbach and Grinnell,
2007). Results, as shown in Table IV, do not substantiate any significant correlation
between engagement and years of service.
Table IV
Total Score and Years of Service Correlation
Correlations
Total
score
Spearman's
rho
Years of
Service
Correlation
Coefficient
.084
Sig. (1-tailed) .119
N
200
Hypothesis Three: The relationship between gender and participants’ level of
engagement. Hypothesis three states that male respondents will report higher levels of
engagement than female respondents. The independent samples T-test was chosen as
the statistical measure for this question. Results of the Levene’s test indicated that equal
variances could be assumed and an alpha level of .05 was chosen for this test.
In this sample, the mean score for male participants was 40.5366 (SD = 4.18), N= 41,
whereas the mean score for female participants was 38.9747 (SD = 4.93) N= 158.
Although males did score higher on the instrument, the difference was not statistically
significant and the hypothesis was not supported. (t 1.800, 197 df, p = .064).
39
Hypothesis Four: The relationship between supervisory job roles and
participants’ level of engagement. Hypothesis four states that respondents with
supervisory job titles will report higher engagement scores. The independent samples T-
test was again chosen as the statistical measure for this question. Results of the
Levene’s test indicated that equal variances could be assumed and an alpha level of .05
was chosen. Results indicated that the mean score for supervisors was 40.6591 (SD =
3.77), N = 44, whereas the mean score for non supervisors was 38.9675 (SD = 5.04), N
= 154. Supervisors scored significantly higher on the instrument than did workers who
do not supervise any other staff, supporting this hypothesis (t 2.063, 196 df, p = .040).
40
Chapter Five: Discussion
The intent of this chapter is to summarize the key findings of the study, present
conclusions drawn from the results, and pose implications for future policy, practice,
and research. The first section summarizes the key findings about the impact of
demographics and work-life variables on employees’ levels of engagement with their
jobs. The second section discusses and draws conclusions about the results of the study.
The last section suggests policy, practice, and research implications for measuring
employee engagement in the social work field and for determining what factors may
predict levels of engagement.
Summary of Key Findings
Results of scores on the Employee Engagement scale for a sample of 201
employees of a state-wide human services agency were analyzed to determine each staff
member’s level of engagement with his/her job. The research questions for the study
were based on the assumption that work-life variables and demographics impact levels
of employee job engagement. The following are the key findings for each hypothesis:
1. Differences in report of engagement by employees working in rural vs. urban
office settings. In this sample, the mean score for rural participants was 39.51, whereas
the mean score for urban participants was 38.78, thus indicating that rural participants
reported slightly higher engagement levels. However, the results were not proven to be
statistically significant at the .05 level and the hypothesis was not supported. There are
no similar populations to compare these findings to, but the results from this study agree
with those in the Rholand (2000) study in which burnout was not higher for individuals
41
working in rural areas. Even though the agency for this study is spread out over multiple
geographic areas, the employees reported equal engagement. An explanation for this
finding may be that there was continuity of supervisor training and of the
implementation of policies and procedures, thus creating similar work atmospheres
across the multiple office locations. A positive implication from this study is that
agency policies and practices are fostering an environment that is conducive to
engagement regardless of whether the office is located in a rural or urban area.
2. Differences in report of engagement by employees in relation to their years
of service to the agency. Results show no significant relationship between years of
service and participant engagement scores. Thus, workers with over 20 years of service
to the agency can be just as highly engaged as those with less than five years of
experience. This finding differs from the theoretical assumption of work engagement
which says that engagement will decrease over time (Coffman & Gonzalez-Molina,
2002). However, the finding lends further support to the theoretical concept that
engagement is not tied directly to issues such as pay or seniority but instead is a
construct that is related to employees’ sense of empowerment and control of their fate at
work (Buhler, 2006). Additionally, findings from this study are similar to Yildirim’s
2008 burnout study, which found no relationship between burnout and years of service.
One explanation for the study findings is that the agency was providing the environment
necessary for staff to engage, regardless of issues such as pay, seniority or years of
service in the organization. An implication from the finding is that the agency should
continue to enforce policies that promote staff engagement, regardless of how many
years they have been on the job.
42
3. Differences, based on gender, in report of engagement. The mean score for
male participants was 40.53, whereas the mean score for female participants was 38.97,
giving some indication that males were more engaged. However, the difference was not
found to be statistically significant and the hypothesis was not supported. This finding is
similar to results from two previous studies, in which it was discovered that engagement
and burnout did not differ significantly between genders (Schaufeli et al., 2006;
Yildirim, 2008). However, the scores in this study differed from a previous burnout
study which reported that females have a greater risk of suffering from burnout (Sprang
et al., 2007). The implication from the findings in this study was that males and females
are given equal opportunities to engage with their job in the agency.
4. Differences in report of engagement based upon supervisory job duties. The
mean score for supervisors was 40.65, whereas the mean score for non supervisors was
38.96. In this sample, supervisors were more engaged with their jobs than were
employees who did not supervise anyone and the research hypothesis was supported.
This finding was similar to the findings of Schaufeli et al. (2006) who discovered that
blue collar workers were less engaged than managers. An implication from the findings
in this project was that the study agency should examine policies that could separate
direct line staff from those in management positions to ensure that agency practices are
not creating an environment that contributes to disengagement in certain workers.
However, the agency should also be aware that having a management staff that is more
engaged than other workers is a positive finding. If the management staff is continually
supported in its efforts to engage, the rest of the staff will be more likely to follow suit.
The implication is supported by the theoretical assumption that engagement is
43
dependent upon the management of an agency, and that the attitudes and behaviors of
supervisors can directly influence engagement levels of the staff.
Discussion and Conclusions
Recent research and literature demonstrate an increased interest in the topic of
employee engagement, and studies show that engagement by employees is directly
related to positive organizational and business outcomes. However, there is no research
that looks specifically at workers in the human services field. Therefore, this study was
designed as an exploratory measure of the engagement of employees in a public human
services agency and to examine the effects that work-life and demographic variables
had on participant scores. This project also served to further develop and refine the
“Employee Engagement” instrument (see Appendix).
This study examined the overall level of engagement of a group of employees
who work for a public human services agency. The instrument was designed so that
scores ranging from the mid point of the total possible score and above, indicated at
least average engagement. Therefore, a score of 24 or above would indicate engagement
and scores of 32 and above would indicate significant engagement. It was discovered
that, in this sample, the majority of the respondents reported themselves to be
significantly engaged with their jobs. The overall mean engagement score of 39.29 out
of a possible maximum score of 48 places the group, as a whole, in the upper range of
engagement. When considering the significantly high engagement rates of the study
population, readers should consider the possibility that human services workers, as a
group, may be more engaged than workers in other industries. The nature of human
service work implies that workers may inherently care more about their job because
44
they believe in the mission of their organization. Results from this study need to be
compared with other human service populations to see if these rates are high, or if they
are similar to other like populations.
Employee Engagement theory would suggest that in an agency such as the study
site, where the workers are significantly engaged, production outcomes would be high
and customer service would be exceptional. A review of the annual report from the
study agency indicated that the study agency met or exceeded the standards and
indicators for the fiscal year in which the study was conducted. In fact, the agency
reported a 67.1% success rate for outcomes with clients (source not identified to protect
confidentiality of the agency). Further, agency reports showed that 98% of the 1,900
clients surveyed reported that they were treated with respect from the staff, and 93% of
clients said the agency services were readily available to them. Therefore, a major
finding of this study was that the high staff engagement levels may have some
correlation with the agencies’ high production outcomes and quality customer service
reports. Further research is suggested to explore the possible connection.
Instrument
The instrument used in this study was created by the researcher (see Appendix).
It was developed for the specific purpose of measuring the engagement of individuals
working in the human services field. The length of the survey was conducive to simple,
quick completion, and therefore encouraged a high participation rate. It was designed to
measure the key concepts of engagement and allowed the researcher to examine
demographic factors and work life variables against levels of engagement. The
instrument was pilot tested and found to be reliable with a Cronbach’s Alpha score of
45
.773. After adding one question, the Cronbach’s Alpha score for the current study was
.798, again demonstrating acceptable reliability. A major conclusion of this study was
that this instrument is reliable and effective for measuring employee engagement and
could be a useful tool for researchers who want to study engagement levels of human
services staff. The Employee Engagement Survey should now be utilized in more
studies with employees in the human services field to further develop its usefulness and
to determine which of the measured demographic factors are most correlated with high
engagement.
One explanation for the overall high level of participant engagement among
those taking this survey is that the study agency was providing the three key
psychological conditions of engagement: meaningfulness, safety, and availability to
their employees (Kahn, 1990). In this survey, questions one, three, and five addressed
the condition of meaningfulness. According to Kahn (1990), meaningfulness can be
described as a feeling that one is receiving a return on one’s investment of oneself in
one’s work. Staff members experience meaningfulness when they feel worthwhile,
useful and valuable (Kahn, 1990). Survey question one asks participants if they have
received recognition for doing their job well. Eighty seven percent (n = 184) of
respondents answered “slightly agree to strongly agree,” thus indicating that staff in this
agency felt that they were receiving a return on the investment of themselves into their
job tasks.
Question three asked participants if the mission of the agency made them feel
like the work they did mattered. A resounding 96% (n = 201) of respondents gave a
positive (slightly agree to strongly agree) answer. This implies that the mission of this
46
agency was made clear to the staff and that the employees felt positive about the work
the agency did.
Question five asked participants if their ideas and opinions were taken seriously.
An answer in agreement to this question would indicate that the employee felt valued,
and as though he or she made a useful contribution to the agency. In this study, 93% (n
= 195) of respondents indicated agreement with the statement.
Kahn (1990) describes safety as another key psychological condition for
engagement. His research indicates that employees feel a sense of safety in climates of
openness and support, and when they feel connected to others. Safety occurs in
environments where individuals are free to express themselves without fear of negative
consequences, and in settings where the boundaries are clear and organizational norms
are known (Kahn, 1990). Question two on the “Employee Engagement” scale used in
this study asked participants if their supervisors seem concerned about their welfare.
Responses were positive in that 94% (n = 197) agreed with the statement, indicating
that employees in this agency felt as though they were supported by management, and
felt a connection to their superiors.
Question four addressed the issue of having friends at work. Participants agreed
with the statement in that 97.5% (n = 202) chose an answer of slightly agree to strongly
agree, indicating that workers in this agency felt a sense of support and connectedness
with their co-workers, and that they were free to express their true selves. Finally,
question seven asked participants if their co-workers did a good job. Responses showed
that 96% (n = 201) agreed with the statement, indicating that participants felt that they
were working toward a common goal with other staff in the agency, and that the role
47
definitions were clear and consistent and fell within the normal boundaries of the
organization (Kahn, 1990).
The third and final key psychological factor of the engagement framework is
availability. Kahn (1990) describes availability as the sense of possessing the physical,
emotional and psychological resources necessary to invest oneself in one’s role at work.
Question six of the survey asked participants if their agency provided the tools and
equipment they needed to do their jobs. Again, the overall response was positive in that
90% (n = 189) of employees said they agreed at least slightly with the statement,
indicating that the study agency was providing the tools the staff perceived they needed
to do their jobs, thus leaving them more likely to engage in their designated roles.
Finally, question eight asks participants if they will still be employed by the agency two
years from now. Although the response was basically positive, fewer of the participants,
72% (n = 180), agreed with this statement.
Kahn’s (1990) model of engagement states that not only are there key
psychological conditions related to engagement, but that those conditions are, to some
degree, within the control of the management of an agency. The aforementioned scores
from this study indicate that the management staff of the study agency may be making a
positive contribution to the engagement of their workers. It is noted that the study
agency implemented a leadership development initiative three years prior to the survey.
This initiative focused on empowering supervisors and on training management
personnel how to be effective leaders. The program employed a variety of strategies,
including required attendance in leadership training, assigned readings, and the
development of a formal leadership plan for every person in a supervisory role. It is
48
reasonable to assume that this initiative may have had a positive impact on survey
scores. An important implication from this finding is that the agency should continue to
invest in its leadership initiative and other related programs in an effort to maintain
high staff engagement levels. Directing resources toward this objective would appear to
be an effective investment for this agency.
Implications for Social Work Policy
Because the key psychological conditions of engagement are to a degree within
the control of the management of the agency, engagement studies should be of
particular interest to social work policy makers. As noted previously, research indicates
that engaged workers help agencies reap benefits like increased efficiency, higher levels
of customer satisfaction, higher productivity, and lower turnover rates (Buhler, 2006).
Therefore, findings from engagement surveys conducted within an agency could inform
policy makers on areas of need, and specific strategies could be developed to target
those areas. Leaders within agencies should continually focus on implementing policies
that increase the engagement of management and staff which, in turn, could be expected
to increase the overall productivity of individual workers and the agency as a whole.
Implications for Social Work Practice
This study informs practitioners about the significance of engagement in the
work place. Practitioners should understand the psychological conditions of
engagement, and how engaged staff members benefit an agency. They should strive to
become engaged with their jobs so as to maximize their effectiveness with clients and to
develop themselves as more effective change agents. Results from this study indicated
that the overall engagement rates for the staff were high. It is therefore presumed that
49
the practitioners within the agency are motivated, emotionally connected to their jobs,
and willing to go above and beyond the call of duty in order to get their work done. The
success rate of the agency on meeting proscribed outcomes also reflects the high overall
staff engagement.
Implications for Social Work Research
Previous to this study, no identified research projects had looked specifically at
engagement rates of workers in the field of human services. Therefore, this exploratory
study was conducted to determine the engagement rates of employees specifically in a
public human services agency. The findings indicated that, overall, the sample
population was significantly engaged with their employment. Implications were that the
study agency was providing the key psychological conditions necessary for their staff to
fully engage with their job. Further studies should now be conducted across the
spectrum of human services agencies to examine similarities or differences in staff
engagement rates. More research is needed to determine which work-life factors or
demographic variables are correlated with high engagement rates. Research projects
using the “Employee Engagement” scale designed for this study should be repeated to
further document the reliability of the instrument, so that comparisons can be made
between results from a variety of human services agencies. Additionally, studies should
be repeated on a regular basis, or after major changes in the organizational structure of
the agency, to determine the stability of employee engagement rates. If an agency has
implemented change strategies designed to increase staff engagement, the survey should
also be repeated so as to determine the effectiveness of the imposed strategies.
50
Conclusion
Results from this study contributed to the limited empirical research on the topic
of employee engagement. Specifically, it contributed the first statistical information
about rates of engagement among staff in a human services agency. Because employee
engagement is now understood to be a critical component of successful organizational
outcomes, it needs to be closely examined in the social work field, if for no other reason
that agencies are held increasingly more accountable for outcomes, and funding is often
tied to success rates. An engaged staff can contribute significantly to reaching positive
outcomes. Therefore, the engagement concept should be at the forefront of social work
research and policy implementation.
51
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Appendix
Employee Engagement Survey
Please check the box that best describes how you feel regarding each statement.
1. I have received recognition for doing my job well.
Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree
2. My supervisor seems concerned about my welfare.
Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree
3. The mission of the agency makes me feel like the work I do matters.
Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree
4. I have friends at work.
Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree
5. While on the job, my ideas and opinions are taken seriously.
Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree
6. The materials, tools and equipment that I need to do my job are supplied by the
agency and made readily available to me.
Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree
57
7. The people I work with do a good job.
Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree
8. I will still be employed here two years from now.
Strongly Slightly Slightly Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
Would you like to give additional information about your responses? If so, please add
comments below and include the number of the statement you are writing about.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________
Demographic Information:
How many years have you worked for the agency? 0 to 5 years_____
6 to 10 years_____
11 to 15 years_____
16 to 20 years_____
Over 20 years_____
58
Indicate your section: DD Section _____
VR Section ________
Is your office located in: Kansas City or St. Louis _______
Other _________
Indicate your position: Professional Staff _________
Support Staff ______________
Do you supervise anyone? Yes_____ No_____
What is your age? 18 – 23 _____
24 – 29 _____
30 – 35_____
36 – 41 _____
42 – 47_____
48 – 53_____
Over 53 ____
Male _______ Female________
59
VITA
Karen L. Wilson currently resides in Sedalia, MO. She holds a B.E.S. in
Educational Psychology and a Master’s in Social Work from the University of Missouri-
Columbia. She is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker. Karen has been employed for over
15 years in the disability rehabilitation field and is currently employed as a District
Supervisor for a state-wide rehabilitation agency. Research interests have included rural
youth gangs, pet facilitated therapy and employee engagement.
