66
and helped direct the path of the “educational system, the armed forces, uniformed youth
movements, the churches and missionary societies, and the forms of public entertainment.”
211
Edward Said’s influential Culture and Imperialism (1993) further reinforced the idea that
imperial references permeated various avenues of culture, particularly literature, whether initially
obvious or not. With pro-imperial themes embedded throughout music, plays, film, radio, school
classrooms, popular literature, advertising, political campaigns, newspapers, and “bric-a-brac,”
what English man, woman, and child could possibly go unaffected and uninterested by both
formal and informal vehicles of propaganda? The Mackenzie school acknowledges that many
people proved themselves ignorant of factual matters of empire, but that does not necessarily
indicate mass disinterest.
212
According to Dane Kennedy, “…the empire’s presence in the
domestic scene is too abundant to ignore. Whatever the dimension of British life one wishes to
consider—the political, the economic, the social, the cultural, the ideological—the markings of
empire were there to be seen.”
213
In essentials, then, England was a nation and a society steeped
in a “collective colonial memory.”
214
By the late 1990s, historians began to revise the Mackenzie school’s treatment of empire.
Represented most recently, and arguably most substantially, by Bernard Porter in The Absent-
Minded Imperialists (2004), these revisionists claim that just because the empire “was one of the
biggest things in history”
215
it does not necessarily follow that the English public cared,
embraced, or felt any overwhelming sense of pride over Britain’s imperial conquests. Whereas
the Mackenzie school views pride in the monarchy, racism, militarism, masculinity, patriotism,
211
Mackenzie, Propaganda and Empire, 2-3.
212
John M. Mackenzie, Introduction, Imperialism and Popular Culture, ed. John M. Mackenzie (Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 1986), 8-9.
213
Kennedy, British Imperialism, 1880-1914, 26.
214
James R. Ryan, Picturing the Empire: Photography and the Visualization of the British Empire (Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 1997), 12.
215
Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society, and Culture in Britain (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2004), 1.